Basic Computer System Design

Introduction to Basic Computer System Design

Muhammad Tariq Mahmood

tariq@[Link]
School of Computer Science and Engineering

Note: These notes are prepared from the following resources.

I (main text)Foundations of Algorithms, (3rd Edition) by Richard Neapolitan and Kumarss Naimipour
I Python Algorithm (파이썬 알고리즘) by Y.K. Choi (2021) (Korean)
I Introduction to the Design and Analysis of Algorithms (3rd Edition) by Anany Levitin
I Introduction to Algorithms, (3rd Edition) by By Thomas H. Cormen, Charles E. Leiserson, Ronald L. Rivest and Clifford Stein
I [Link]

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 Contents

1 The Engineering Design Process

Elements of Engineering Design Process
General types of design processes
Phases of the Design Process

2 Technology-Specific Design Processes

3 The World-Class Engineer

Learning Objectives
I Understand what is meant by engineering design.
I Understand the phases of the engineering design process.
I Be familiar with the attributes of successful engineers.

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 The Engineering Design Process
The Engineering Design Process
I ABET (formerly known as Accreditation Board of Engineering and Technology) provides the following
definition of engineering design

Definition Engineering design is the process of devising a system, component, or process to meet desired
needs. It is a decision-making process (often iterative), in which the basic sciences, mathematics, and
engineering sciences are applied to convert resources optimally to meet a stated objective. Among the
fundamental elements of the design process are the establishment of objectives and criteria, synthesis,
analysis, construction, testing, and evaluation. [ABET]

I Engineering design is an iterative process.

I Design problems are open-ended with many potential solutions.

I Design processes embody the steps required to take an idea from concept to realization of the final system,
and are problem-solving methodologies that aim to develop a system that best meets the customer’s need
within given constraints. product realization process

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 The Engineering Design Process (cont...)
Elements of Engineering Design Process
I These three elements (methodologies, techniques, and tools) work together to form an organizational
approach to systems analysis and design

I Methodologies are a sequence of step-by-step

approaches that help develop your final product (the
system)
I Techniques are processes that you, as an analyst,
will follow to help ensure that your work is well
thought-out, complete, and comprehensible to
others on your project team.
I Tools are computer programs, such as
computer-aided software engineering (CASE) tools,
that make it easy to use specific techniques
I Design processes continue to evolve.
Figure 1: The software engineering process uses proven
methodologies, techniques, and tools.

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 General types of design processes

General types of design processes

I Two types of design processes: 1) prescriptive 2) descriptive.
I Prescriptive design processes set down an exact process, or systematic recipe, for realizing a system.
I Prescriptive design processes are often algorithmic in nature and expressed on flow charts with decision logic.

Figure 2: A prescriptive design process for problem identification and requirements selection.

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 General types of design processes (cont...)
I Descriptive processes are less formal, describing
typical activities involved in realizing designs with
less emphasis on exact sequencing.
I The process starts with the identification of the
problem, proceeds clockwise to research, followed
the requirements phase, and so on until the system
or device is delivered and goes into service
(maintenance phase).
I links are inserted that allow transitions between all
the different phases of the design process.
I The distinction between descriptive and prescriptive
processes is not always clear, however, and some
processes may be considered more strongly
associated with one property than the other. Figure 3: A descriptive overview of the design process.

I Two good reasons to adhere to design processes: (1) they formalize thought processes to ensure good
practices are followed, leading to better and more innovative solutions, and (2) they keep all members of the
team synchronized in terms of understanding where they are in the design process.
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 Phases of the Design Process
I Following and understanding the design process improves the probability of successful system development.

I The process is flexible, and the designer needs to transition between different phases in order to bring the
system to realization.
Phases/Steps of the Design Process
1. problem identification:The objective of the first phase is to identify the problem and customer needs. It is
important to determine the true needs for the product, device, or system.

2. research phase In this phase the design team conducts research on the basic engineering and scientific
principles, related technologies, and existing solutions. The objective is to become experts on the problem,
save time and money by not reinventing the wheel, and be positioned to develop new and innovative
solutions.

3. requirements specificationThe articulates what the system must do for it to be successful and to be
accepted by the customer. It is important to focus on what the system must do, as opposed to how the
solution will be implemented.

4. concept generation The hallmark of design is that it is open-ended, meaning that there are multiple
solutions to the problem and the objective is to develop the one that best meets the requirements and
satisfies the constraints.
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 Phases of the Design Process (cont...)
5. Design: In the design phase, the team iteratively develops a technical solution, ultimately producing a
detailed system design. Upon its completion, all major systems and subsystems are identified and described
using an appropriate model that depends upon the particular technology being employed.

6. prototyping and construction: In the prototyping and construction phase, different elements of the system
are constructed and tested.

7. system integration: During system integration, all of the subsystems are brought together to produce a
complete working system. This phase is challenging and time-consuming since many different pieces of the
design must be interfaced, and the team must work closely to make it all work.

8. System Test: System integration is closely tied to the test phase, where the overall system is tested to
demonstrate that it meets the requirements.

9. delivery and Acceptance : Ultimately the system is delivered to the customer where it is likely that it will be
tested by a mutually agreed upon process.

10. Maintenance and Update : System is maintained, upgraded to add new functionality, or design problems are
corrected.

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 Technology-Specific Design Processes

Technology-Specific Design Processes

I Many technologies have their own particular design processes that have evolved over time and have been
found by practitioners

I Different application domains have developed specialized processes for technology-specific design.

I For example, different methodologies are applied in the design of

1. Very-large-scale integration (VLSI) System

2. embedded systems

3. software systems,

I They all have some degree of commonality, such as requirements analysis, technical design, and system test.

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 Technology-Specific Design Processes (cont...)

Design process for VLSI (very large scale integration) Systems

I Very-large-scale integration (VLSI) is the process of creating an integrated circuit (IC) by combining
thousands of transistors into a single chip.

I VLSI refers to an integrated circuit technology with numerous devices on a single chip.

I VLSI began in the 1970s when complex semiconductor and communication technologies were being
developed.

I Two of the most common VLSI devices are the microprocessor and the microcontroller.

I over the last few years, Silicon CMOS(Complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor) technology is now the
leading fabrication process for cost-effective and relatively high-performance VLSI circuits.

I Presently, technologies like smartphones and cellular communications afford unprecedented portability,
processing capabilities, and application access due to VLSI technology.

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 Technology-Specific Design Processes (cont...)

The Advantages of VLSI Technology

I Reduced size for circuits

I Increased cost-effectiveness for devices

I Improved performance in terms of the operating speed of circuits

I Requires less power than discrete components

I Higher device reliability

I Requires less space and promotes miniaturization

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 Technology-Specific Design Processes (cont...)
Design process for VLSI (very large scale integration) Systems

I The entire design process follows a step-by-step approach, and the following are the steps:

1. Problem Specification: This is a high-level interpretation of a system. We address the key parameters, such as
design techniques, functionality, performance, fabrication technology, and physical dimensions. The final
specifications include the power, functionality, speed, and size of the VLSI system.

Figure 4: A process for integrated circuit (VLSI) design

2. Architecture Definition: This includes fundamental specifications such as floating-point units and which system
to use, such as RISC(Reduced Instruction Set Computer) or CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computers) and
ALU’s(arithmetic logic unit) cache size.

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 Technology-Specific Design Processes (cont...)

3. Functional Design: This recognizes the vital functional units of a system and, thus, enables identification of each
unit’s physical and electrical specifications and interconnect requirements.

4. Logic Design: This step involves control flow, Boolean expressions, word width, and register allocation.

5. Circuit Design: This step performs the realization of the circuit in the form of a netlist. Since this is a software
step, it utilizes simulation to check the outcome.

6. Physical Design: In this step, we create the layout by converting the netlist into a geometrical depiction. This
step also follows some preconceived static rules, such as the lambda rules, which afford precise details of the
ratio, spacing between components, and size.

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 Technology-Specific Design Processes (cont...)
I The steps of the VLSI design flow

1. System specification

2. Architectural design.

3. Circuit design

4. Physical design

5. Physical verification

6. Fabrication

7. Packaging and testing

I This model is an excellent demonstration of the divide-and-conquer or Top-down approach to design, where
a complex system is broken down into lower levels of abstraction and each of these is further broken down
until the design objectives are met

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 Technology-Specific Design Processes (cont...)
Embedded systems

I Embedded systems refer to electronic products that

are based on microcontrollers.

I They possess computational logic, memories,

communications, I/O peripherals and are usually
used for a specific function.

I Embedded systems are combined hardware/software

systems embedded into a larger system to perform
dedicated application-specific operations.

I Performance issues dominate embedded applications,

and the designer needs to partition tasks between
software and hardware to achieve optimum
performance.
I A washing machine, smartphone, security access
system, vending machine examples of embedded
systems.

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 Technology-Specific Design Processes (cont...)

Characteristics of Embedded systems

I Embedded systems are designed for specific tasks and are single functioned

I Some of them don’t have any external interface at all, some may contain complex interfaces. It’s based on
the requirements of the system

I Some systems may provide user interfaces directly or through serial or network connection which reduces the
overall cost of the system by avoiding displays and input interfaces

I Embedded systems are typically designed to meet real-time constraints

I They are designed with high optimization for memory, power usage, execution time, dimensions, weight, and
cost

I Embedded system use a few resources, so developing a system will be a challenging task

I The system should be highly reliable; it is not designed for repairs and cannot be shut down for safety
reasons.

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 Technology-Specific Design Processes (cont...)
Embedded system architecture

I Processor : There are many options while choosing a devices, E.g: LED
processor. These include 1)General purpose
microprocessor 2)Microcontroller, 3)Digital signal
processors, 4) Field programmable gate array
(FPGA), 5)Complex programmable logic devices
(CPLD), 6) System on chip (SoC)

I Interfaces: They include 1) Serial communication

interfaces, e.g: RS-232, 2)Synchronous serial
communication interface: e.g: I2C 3) USB, 4)
Networks: E.g: WiFi, 5) Debugging, E.g: JTAG,
6)Field buses, E.g: Controller Area Network(CAN)

I Peripherals: 1)Displays, E.g: Graphic LCD, 2)

Multimedia cards, E.g: SD Card, 3) Timers,
I The embedded system software, generally called
Counters, 4) Analog to Digital converters, 5)Input
firmware, defines how the hardware behaves in each
devices, E.g: keypad, scanner, camera 5)Output
circumstance.

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 Technology-Specific Design Processes (cont...)
Design process for embedded computer systems
I This design process is somewhat prescriptive, with phases for requirements gathering, specifications, and
architectural design.

I Requirements Analysis: gather and analyze the

product requirements
I System specifications: requirements are translated
into specifications
I System Architecture: decide which system should be
implemented with hardware and which through
software (Technology selection, Resource allocation)
I Hardware design – schematics, layout, Printed circuit
board(PCB) manufacturing and board bring-up
I Firmware (software) design,development and testing
I System integration and testing
I Testing, certifications

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 Technology-Specific Design Processes (cont...)
Design Process for software systems
I The field of software engineering is one in which the development of different design process models is still
under considerable flux today.

I This is due to the complex nature of software and the failure of computer scientists and engineers to
effectively develop high-quality software systems.

I The size of software programs may easily exceed one million lines of code written by many different software
developers. One small mistake in those millions of lines of code can cause the system to fail.

I Another difficulty is in designing for upgrade and reuse of software.

I The systems development life cycle (SDLC) is a common methodology for systems development in many
organizations.

I Classification of Software based on applications:

1. System Software : System Software is necessary to manage the computer resources and support the execution of
application programs.

2. Networking and Web Applications Software : Networking Software provides the required support necessary for
computers to interact with each other and with data storage facilities.
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 Technology-Specific Design Processes (cont...)

3. Embedded Software : This type of software is embedded into the hardware normally in the Read-Only Memory
(ROM) as a part of a large system and is used to support certain functionality under the control conditions.

4. Reservation Software : A Reservation system is primarily used to store and retrieve information and perform
transactions related to air travel, car rental, hotels, or other activities.

5. Business Software : This category of software is used to support business applications and is the most widely
used category of software.

6. Entertainment Software : Education and entertainment software provides a powerful tool for educational
agencies, especially those that deal with educating young children.

7. Artificial Intelligence Software : Software like expert systems, decision support systems, pattern recognition
software, artificial neural networks, etc. come under this category.

8. Scientific Software : Scientific and engineering software satisfies the needs of a scientific or engineering user to
perform enterprise-specific tasks.

9. Utilities Software : The programs coming under this category perform specific tasks and are different from other
software in terms of size, cost, and complexity.

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 Technology-Specific Design Processes (cont...)
waterfall model

I The waterfall model is one of the first proposed and

most well-known software design processes.
I This is a prescriptive model since the development
proceeds linearly from the first step where the user’s
needs are analyzed through the phases of
specification development, design, test, and
maintenance.
I This works for well-defined and moderately complex
software applications, but fails as complexity grows
because of the inability to move between phases.

Figure 5: Waterfall software development process. In

this model, development proceeds linearly from
requirements analysis, through each subsequent phase,
terminating with maintenance.

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 Technology-Specific Design Processes (cont...)

I Advantages of Classical Waterfall Model I Drawbacks of Classical Waterfall Model

• This model is very simple and is easy to understand.
• No feedback path: In classical waterfall model
• Phases in this model are processed one at a time.
evolution of software from one phase to another
• Each stage in the model is clearly defined. phase is like a waterfall.
• This model has very clear and well understood
• Difficult to accommodate change requests: This
milestones.
model assumes that all the customer requirements
• Process, actions and results are very well can be completely and correctly defined at the
documented. beginning of the project, but actually customers’
requirements keep on changing with time.
• Reinforces good habits: define-before- design,
design-before-code. • No overlapping of phases: This model recommends
• This model works well for smaller projects and that new phase can start only after the completion
projects where requirements are well understood. of the previous phase.

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 Technology-Specific Design Processes (cont...)

Iterative Waterfall Model

I The iterative waterfall model provides feedback

paths from every phase to its preceding phases,
which is the main difference from the classical
waterfall model.
I When errors are detected at some later phase, these
feedback paths allow correcting errors committed by
team members/programmers during some phase.
I It is good to detect errors in the same phase in
which they are committed. It reduces the effort and
time required to correct the errors.

Figure 6: iterative waterfall model

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 Technology-Specific Design Processes (cont...)
I Advantages of Iterative Waterfall Model the requirements must be clearly stated before
starting the development phase.
• Feedback Path : In the iterative waterfall model
• Incremental delivery not supported: In the iterative
feedback path from one phase to its preceding phase
allows correcting the errors that are committed and waterfall model, the full software is completely
these changes are reflected in the later phases. developed and tested before delivery to the
customer.
• Simple :Iterative waterfall model is very simple to
understand and use. That’s why it is one of the • Overlapping of phases not supported : Iterative
most widely used software development models. waterfall model assumes that one phase can start
• Cost-Effective : It is highly cost-effective to change after completion of the previous phase, But in real
the plan or requirements in the model. Moreover, it projects, phases may overlap to reduce the effort
is best suited for agile organizations. and time needed to complete the project.

• Well-organized : In this model, less time is • Risk handling not supported : Projects may suffer
consumed on documenting and the team can spend from various types of risks. But, the Iterative
more time on development and designing. waterfall model has no mechanism for risk handling.

• Limited customer interactions : Customer

I Drawbacks of Iterative Waterfall Model : interaction occurs at the start of the project at the
• Difficult to incorporate change requests : The major time of requirement gathering and at project
drawback of the iterative waterfall model is that all completion at the time of software delivery.

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 Technology-Specific Design Processes (cont...)
spiral model

I Spiral model is one of the most important Software current phase.

Development Life Cycle models, which provides
support for Risk Handling.
I The exact number of loops of the spiral is unknown
and can vary from project to project. Each loop of
the spiral is called a Phase of the software
development process.
I As the project manager dynamically determines the
number of phases, so the project manager has an
important role to develop a product using the spiral
model.
I The Radius of the spiral at any point represents the
expenses(cost) of the project so far, and the angular
dimension represents the progress made so far in the Figure 7: different phases of the Spiral Model

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 Technology-Specific Design Processes (cont...)

I Advantages of Spiral Model: I Disadvantages of Spiral Model:

• Risk Handling: The projects with many unknown
risks that occur as the development proceeds, in • Complex: The Spiral Model is much more complex
that case, Spiral Model is the best development
model to follow due to the risk analysis and risk than other SDLC models.
handling at every phase. • Expensive: Spiral Model is not suitable for small
• Good for large projects: It is recommended to use projects as it is expensive.
the Spiral Model in large and complex projects.
• Too much dependability on Risk Analysis: The
• Flexibility in Requirements: Change requests in the
successful completion of the project is very much
Requirements at later phase can be incorporated
dependent on Risk Analysis. Without very highly
accurately by using this model.
experienced experts, it is going to be a failure to
• Customer Satisfaction: Customer can see the develop a project using this model.
development of the product at the early phase of
the software development and thus, they habituated • Difficulty in time management: As the number of
with the system by using it before completion of the phases is unknown at the start of the project, so
total product. time estimation is very difficult.

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 Technology-Specific Design Processes (cont...)
Rapid application development (RAD) model

I The Rapid Application Development Model was first

proposed by IBM in 1980’s.
I The critical feature of this model is the use of
powerful development tools and techniques.
I A software project can be implemented using this
model if the project can be broken down into small
modules wherein each module can be assigned
independently to separate teams.
I These modules can finally be combined to form the
final product.
I Striking feature of this model is a short time span

Figure 8: Rapid application development model

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 Technology-Specific Design Processes (cont...)
I Advantages I Disadvantages
• The use of powerful and efficient tools requires
• Use of reusable components helps to reduce the highly skilled professionals.
cycle time of the project. • The absence of reusable components can lead to
• Feedback from the customer is available at initial failure of the project.
stages.
• The team leader must work closely with the
• Reduced costs as fewer developers are required. developers and customers to close the project in
• Use of powerful development tools results in better time.
quality products in comparatively shorter time • The systems which cannot be modularized suitably
spans.
cannot use this model.
• The progress and development of the project can be
measured through the various stages. • Customer involvement is required throughout the
life cycle.
• It is easier to accommodate changing requirements
due to the short iteration time spans. • It is not meant for small scale projects as for such
cases, the cost of using automated tools and
techniques may exceed the entire budget of the
project.

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 Technology-Specific Design Processes (cont...)

Applications
I This model should be used for a system with known requirements and requiring short development time.
I It is also suitable for projects where requirements can be modularized and reusable components are also
available for development.
I The model can also be used when already existing system components can be used in developing a new
system with minimum changes.
I This model can only be used if the teams consist of domain experts. This is because relevant knowledge and
ability to use powerful techniques is a necessity.
I The model should be chosen when the budget permits the use of automated tools and techniques required.

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 Technology-Specific Design Processes (cont...)

Agile Development Models

I To overcome these drawbacks of Waterfall model, in the mid-1990s the Agile Software Development model
was proposed.
I The Agile model was primarily designed to help a project to adapt to change requests quickly.
I To accomplish this task agility is required. Agility is achieved by fitting the process to the project, removing
activities that may not be essential for a specific project.
I Agile is a framework that defines how software development needs to be carried on. Agile is not a single
method, it represents the various collection of methods and practices that follow the value statements
provided in the manifesto. A few Agile SDLC models are given below:
1. Crystal
2. Atern
3. Feature-driven development
4. Scrum
5. Extreme programming (XP)
6. Lean development
7. Unified process

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 Technology-Specific Design Processes (cont...)

Principles of Agile Models

1. Highest priority is to satisfy the customer through early and continuous delivery of valuable software.

2. It welcomes changing requirements, even late in development.

3. Deliver working software frequently, from a couple of weeks to a couple of months, with a preference to the
shortest timescale.

4. Build projects around motivated individuals. Give them the environment and the support they need, and
trust them to get the job done.

5. Working software is the primary measure of progress.

6. Simplicity the art of maximizing the amount of work not done is essential.

7. The most efficient and effective method of conveying information to and within a development team is
face-to-face conversation.

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 Technology-Specific Design Processes (cont...)

Development in Agile:
I In Agile development, Design and Implementation are considered to be the central activities in the software
process.

I Design and Implementation phase also incorporate other activities such as requirements elicitation and
testing into it.

I In an agile approach, iteration occurs across activities. Therefore, the requirements and the design are
developed together, rather than separately.

I The allocation of requirements and the design planning and development as executed in a series of
increments. In contrast with the conventional model, where requirements gathering needs to be completed in
order to proceed to the design and development phase, it gives Agile development an extra level of flexibility.

I An agile process focuses more on code development rather than documentation.

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 Technology-Specific Design Processes (cont...)

I Advantages • In case of large software projects, it is difficult to

assess the effort required at the initial stages of the
• Deployment of software is quicker and thus helps in software development life cycle.
increasing the trust of the customer. • The Agile Development is more code focused and
• Can better adapt to rapidly changing requirements produces less documentation.
and respond faster.
• Agile development is heavily depended on the inputs
• Helps in getting immediate feedback which can be
of the customer. If the customer has ambiguity in
used to improve the software in the next increment. his vision of the final outcome, it is highly likely for
• People – Not Process. People and interactions are the project to get off track.
given a higher priority rather than process and tools.
• Face to Face communication is harder in large-scale
• Continuous attention to technical excellence and organizations.
good design.
• Only senior programmers are capable of taking the
kind of decisions required during the development
process. Hence it’s a difficult situation for new
I Disadvantages programmers to adapt to the environment.

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 Technology-Specific Design Processes (cont...)
RAD Model vs Traditional SDLC

Sno RAD Traditional SDLC

1 Stages are not well defined. Structured Methodology and well-defined stages.
2 Different stages of application development can Follows a predictive, inflexible and rigid approach
be reviewed and repeated as the approach is it- for application development.
erative.
3 The use of automated RAD tools and techniques Prototyping is difficult and requires more time
enable faster and easier prototypes which are and effort.
then used to develop the final product.
4 It is not necessary to know all the requirements All the requirements should be known before
beforehand. starting the project due to rigidity of the models.
5 Easier to accommodate changes. Difficult to accommodate changes due to se-
quential nature of models
6 Extensive customer feedback leading to more Limited customer feedback.
customer satisfaction and better quality of final
software.
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 Technology-Specific Design Processes (cont...)

7 It involves minimal documentation. Stringent and extensive documentation of the

entire project process is necessary.
8 Separate small teams can be assigned to individ- As there is no modularisation, a larger team is
ual modules. required for different stages with strictly defined
roles.
9 Generally preferred for projects with shorter time Used for projects with longer development sched-
durations and budgets large enough to afford the ules and where budgets do not allow the use of
use of automated tools and techniques. expensive and powerful tools.
10 Use of reusable components helps to reduce the The use of powerful and efficient tools requires
cycle time of the project. highly skilled professionals.

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 Technology-Specific Design Processes (cont...)

V-Model

I The V-model is a type of SDLC model where process

executes in a sequential manner in V-shape. It is also
known as Verification and Validation model.
I It is based on the association of a testing phase for
each corresponding development stage. Development
of each step directly associated with the testing
phase.
I It is easy to manage due to the rigidity of the model.
Each phase of V-Model has specific deliverables and
a review process.
I It is proactive defect tracking : that is defects are
found at early stage.

Figure 9: V-model

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 Technology-Specific Design Processes (cont...)

I Advantages • It enables project management to track progress

accurately.

• This is a highly disciplined model and Phases are

completed one at a time. I Disadvantages
• High risk and uncertainty.
• V-Model is used for small projects where project
requirements are clear. • It is not a good for complex and object-oriented
projects.
• Simple and easy to understand and use.
• It is not suitable for projects where requirements are
• This model focuses on verification and validation not clear and contains high risk of changing.
activities early in the life cycle thereby enhancing
the probability of building an error-free and good • This model does not support iteration of phases.
quality product.
• It does not easily handle concurrent events.

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 The World-Class Engineers

The World-Class Engineer

I The ability to effectively design is important for engineers, requiring strong technical skills and an
understanding of the design process.

I The Pennsylvania State University Leonhard Center for the Advancement of Engineering Education, in
consultation with a number of industries, developed a description of what is referred to as a "World-Class
Engineer" [Leo95].

I They identified the characteristics of successful engineers, and contains following major elements: (1) Aware
of the World, (2) Solidly Grounded, (3) Technically Broad, (4) Effective in Group Operations, (5) Versatile,
and (6) Customer Oriented.

1. Aware of the World

• Sensitive to cultural differences, environmental concerns, and ethical principles.

• Alert to market opportunities (both high and low tech).

• Cognizant of competitive talents, work ethic, and motivation.

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 The World-Class Engineers (cont...)
2. Solidly Grounded
• Thoroughly trained in the fundamentals of a selected engineering discipline.

• Has a historical perspective and remains aware of advances in science that can impact engineering.

• Realizes that knowledge doubles at breakneck speed and is prepared to continue learning throughout a career.

3. Technically Broad
• Understands that real-life problems are multidisciplinary.

• Thinks broadly, seeing an issue in a rich context of various alternatives, probabilities, etc., rather than as a
narrow quest to find a single answer.

• Is conversant in several disciplines.

• Is trained in systems modeling and the identification of critical elements. Understands the need to design
experiments to verify or extend analysis, as well as meet specification requirements.

• Is psychologically prepared to embrace any field necessary to solve the problem at hand.

4. Effective in Group Operations

• Cooperative in an organization of individuals working toward a common creative goal that is often
multidisciplinary and multifunctional in nature.
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 The World-Class Engineers (cont...)
• Effective in written and oral communication.

• Willing to seek and use expert advice.

• Cognizant of the value of time and the need to make efficient use of the time in all phases of an endeavor.

• Understanding and respectful of the many facets of business operation—general management, marketing,
finance, law, human resources, manufacturing, service, and especially quality.

5. Versatile
• Innovative in the development of products and services.

• Sees engineering as applicable to problem solving in general.

• Considers applying engineering beyond the typical employment focus of engineering graduates in the
manufacturing industries, to the much broader economy (financial services, health care, transportation, etc.)
where engineering skills could make a dramatic improvement in the productivity of those segments of the
economy, which employ 80 percent of the U.S. population.

6. Customer Oriented
• Realizes that finding and satisfying customers is the only guarantee of business success.

• Understands that products and services must excel in the test of cost-effectiveness in the global marketplace.
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