MODULE I

INTRODUCTION TO
POSTHARVEST HANDLING

Lesson 1 Definition of Terms

Lesson 2 Historical Development and

Importance
 MODULE I

INTRODUCTION TO POSTHARVEST HANDLING

 INTRODUCTION

This module discusses the definition of terms, historical development, and

importance of post-harvest technology.

GENERAL OBJECTIVES

After studying this module, you should be able to:

1. Familiarize terms in postharvest handling
2. Know the historical development of post-harvest technology
3. Know the importance of post-harvest technology

 DIRECTIONS/ MODULE ORGANIZER

There are three lessons in this module. Read each lesson carefully and asses yourself how
much you have benefited from it. Answer the quick assessment and submit your output to
your subject instructor.

In case you encounter difficulty in understanding your lesson, discuss this with your
subject instructor.

Happy reading and learning!

 LESSON I: DEFINITION OF TERMS

INTRODUCTION

The postharvest quality and postharvest shelf life of horticultural commodities

are greatly affected by several preharvest factors, such as cultivation practices,
characteristics of the cultivar, and environmental conditions during growth and
development.

OVERVIEW OF THE LESSON

At the end of this lesson, you are expected to:

1. Familiarize Terminologies

Terms and definitions

1. Definition of produce

1.1 Species: From the scientific point of view is the species one of the basic
units of biological classification. It is a group of closely related organisms
that are very similar, capable of interbreeding and reproducing fertile
offspring.
Wherever the term “species” is mentioned in the standard it refers to the
species listed in section I definition of produce.
1.2 Variety (cultivated variety, cultivar): Taxon that has been selected for
a particular attribute or combination of attributes, and is clearly distinct,
uniform, and stable in its characteristics and when propagated by
appropriate means, retains those characteristics. In some particular cases, the
term “cultivar” is equivalent to “variety” which is a single botanic taxon of
the lowest known rank. Varieties are recognised for their unique
characteristics by authorities for variety protection. They may have been
derived by mutation or hybridization.
 1.3 Mutant: A mutant that has been selected from the basic variety, having
the same genotype but differing in specific morphological or physiological
characteristics. This change can bring, e.g. more or less colour, longer shelf
life, different shape, or taste. The most distinctive characteristics of the
variety remain intact. A mutant may be given protection as a variety.
1.4 Commercial type: Produce with similar technical characteristics
and/or appearance, but which may belong to different varieties.
Example: Round tomatoes are the same commercial type even if different varieties
exist.
Example: Garlic can have different commercial types: dry; semi-dry; fresh;
or smoked, even if it is the same variety.
1.5 Industrial processing: Processing is the transformation of raw fruit
and vegetables into a new product different from its initial fresh stage,
terminating the natural living processes of a plant.
Industrial processing is done in a food processing facility. Fruit and
vegetable processing comprises extracting juice, canning, preserving,
freezing, or dehydrating. These operations may change the texture and
flavor of the produce.
However, trimming, peeling, cutting, washing, grading, sorting and
packaging are part of preparation, not processing. Whether a trimmed or cut
produce is covered or not depends on the standard.
2. Provisions concerning quality

2.1 Minimum requirements

2.1.1 Intact: The whole fruit or vegetable as it was harvested. The produce
is not damaged and does not have any injury. Depending on the
characteristics of the product, trimmed products may still be regarded as
intact.
2.1.2 Sound: Produce free from fungal, bacterial or virus disease or other
deterioration (such as decay, breakdown or damage caused by any reason, or
physiological disorders, seen in the field or during storage) that appreciably
affects the appearance, edibility, the keeping quality of the produce or
market value.
2.1.3 Clean: Free from visible foreign matter.
[Link] Visible foreign matter: Any visible extraneous material not usually
associated with fruits and vegetables such as dust, soil, substrate, chemical
residue or other foreign matter.
[Link] Practically free from visible foreign matter: Only superficial
foreign matter shall be visible on the produce and not spread over the whole
edible part (i.e. small amount of foreign matter near the calyx or peduncle
area). A specific limit may be defined in the respective standard.
2.1.4 Pests: Species of animal, especially mites or insects, that is injurious
or potentially injurious, whether directly or indirectly to the fruit and
vegetable or its presentation. While the scientific definition of pests includes
any species, strain or biotype of plant, animal or pathogenic agent injurious
to the produce, in the context of the fruit and vegetable standards pests
would not cover fungal or bacteriological disorders (they would be covered
by the term “sound”).
[Link] Practically free from pests: The occasional insect, mite or other
animal in the package or sample, unless otherwise indicated in the standard.
Phytosanitary measures would always overrule this allowance.
2.1.5 Damage caused by pests: Injury caused by pests affecting the skin or
the flesh, or the presence of dead pests and/or excrement. This damage may
affect the flesh, exposing it to exterior contact and may affect edibility.
2.1.6 Fresh appearance: Appearance of fruit and vegetables displaying
the characteristics of recently harvested produce (i.e. colour, texture,
firmness, turgescence), including absence of shrivelling, wilting or signs of
senescence.
2.1.7 Development: Physiological and morphological processes resulting in
growth, and/or changes of the general characteristics of the produce.
[Link] Sufficient development:
Physiological and morphological stage that allows the edibility of the
produce and/or enables the produce to arrive in good condition at the
market.
2.1.8 Maturity: Physiological and biochemical changes of fruit. Maturity
influences texture, juiciness, sugar-content, sugar-acid-ratio of the fruit.
Maturity is dependent on the characteristics of each produce.
Firmness: Attribute of flesh texture expressing resistance to deformation
which depends on variety, stage of ripeness and length of storage. Firmness
is one of the indicators useful in assessment of stage of ripeness and can be
measured by a penetrometer, or other assessment.
2.1.9 Firm: Level of firmness enabling trading, storing and keeping
acceptable eating quality of produce, depending on the nature of produce
(e.g. carrots, cherries or garlic).
2.1.10 Decay: Defect (progressive or not) seriously affecting the edibility
 and/or keeping quality of the produce.
2.1.11 Satisfactory condition: Absence of defects. These defects can be a
lack of firmness, bruises, heavy trim, cuts, cracking, picking damages,
chilling, scald, or other defects likely to deteriorate. The produce should be
edible with a normal preparation.

2.2 Classification

2.2.1 Classification: Grouping of produce in classes based on quality levels

in relation to relevant parameters.
2.2.2 “Extra” Class: Selection of fruit or vegetables of superior quality.
The produce shall have the characteristics typical of the variety or
commercial type and shall fulfil the minimum requirements. The produce
may have superficial defects only, unless otherwise indicated in the
standard. The superficial defects should affect only very small areas of the
produce and should hardly contrast with the typical colouring, nature of the
skin or typical shape. The produce shall not have any defect affecting the
internal quality.
2.2.3 Class I: Selection of fruit or vegetables of good quality. The produce
shall have the characteristics typical of the variety or commercial type and
shall fulfil the minimum requirements. The produce may have slight defects
only with regard to shape, development, colouring and skin, unless
otherwise indicated in the standard. The slight defects should affect only
small areas of the produce and should only slightly contrast with the typical
colouring, nature of the skin or typical shape. The produce shall not have
any defect affecting the internal quality.
2.2.4 Class II: Selection of fruit or vegetables of marketable quality. The
produce may have defects with regard to shape, development, colouring and
skin as well as to minimum requirements, unless otherwise indicated in the
standard. The produce shall not have serious defects affecting the internal
quality.
2.2.5 Flesh: The consumed part of a fruit or vegetable underneath the skin.

3. Sizing

3.1 Sizing: The classification of fruit and vegetables is based on their

physical dimensions or mass.
3.2 Size: The physical dimensions or mass of fruit and vegetables expressed
individually as diameter, length, weight or number of units per package.
3.3 Minimum size: The smallest acceptable size in the standard. A
 minimum size is established to guarantee sufficient development of the
produce for its intended purpose.
3.4 Uniformity in size: A size range is defined to guarantee a uniform
appearance of the produce in the package with respect to the physical
dimensions. It may be expressed by minimum and maximum size or a
minimum or maximum number of units in the package.

3.5 Miniature products: Miniature product means a variety or cultivar of

fruit or vegetable, obtained by plant breeding (Example: Miniature varieties,
such as cherry tomatoes) and/or special cultivation techniques (Example:
High density sowing, such as miniature cabbage) aimed at producing
smaller sized specimens.

4. Tolerances

4.1 Tolerances are provided to allow deviation from the requirements of the
standard. The tolerances are assessed on samples, drawn in accordance with
internationally agreed methods of sampling (such as OECD or Codex rules
for conformity checks).
4.1.1 Quality tolerances: Maximum deviation allowed for produce not
meeting the quality requirements , expressed in percentage, by number or
weight.
4.1.2 Size tolerances: Maximum deviation allowed for produce not meeting
the sizing requirements, expressed in percentage, by number or weight.
4.2 Lot: The quantity of produce presented for inspection as one unit,
having similar characteristics with regard to:
packer, dispatcher and/or
shipper country of origin
nature of
produce class
of produce
size (if the produce is graded according to size)
variety or commercial type (according to the relevant provisions of
the standard) type of packaging and presentation

5. Presentation

5.1 Presentation: The manner in which produce is presented for sale

(packaging, count, or weight).
 5.1.1 Uniformity: Fruit or vegetables having similar characteristics
regarding the origin, variety or commercial type, quality (i.e. class), size,
maturity, weight, shape, colour depending on the produce.

5.2 Packaging:

Package: Individual packages conceived to facilitate handling and transport of a number of

sales packages or of produce loose or arranged, in order to prevent damage caused by handling,
transport, or contaminants (for example cartons, plastic bags, pallox, etc). The package may
constitute a sales package. Road, rail, ship and air containers are not considered as packages.
5.2.1 Sales package: Individual packages conceived to constitute a sales
unit to the final user or consumer at the point of purchase.
Pre-packages are sales packages such as the packaging enclosing the
foodstuff completely or only partially, but in such a way that the contents
cannot be altered without opening or changing the packaging. Protective
films covering single produce are not considered as a pre-package.
5.2.2 Bulk: Unpackaged produce which may be in direct contact with the
transportation unit and/or the atmosphere.

6. Marking

6.1 Packer: Person or company responsible for the management of post-

harvest operations and/or for preparing the product for marketing, such as
grading, sorting, sizing, and packing.
6.2 Dispatcher: Person or company responsible for sending the produce.
6.3 Officially issued or accepted codemark: A code given by the
competent authority of the country concerned uniquely identifying packer /
dispatcher of the lot. This consists of a variety of numbers and/or letters and
may be present on a package within a lot in place of the name and address of
the packer / dispatcher.
6.4 Synonym: Officially accepted name that can replace the variety name
and that refers to the same variety.
Examples: Red Delight is the synonym of the variety Elise; Gold Parmoné
or Goldparmäne are the synonyms of the variety Reine des Reinettes.
6.5 Trademark: A name developed by a trader for which legal protection
has been sought or obtained in one or more countries as a Trademark TM or a
registered Trademark®. Such produce may be produced or traded only by
those authorized by trademark holders to do so under an appropriate licence.
Example: Pink Lady® is a registered trademark of the variety Cripps Pink.
 6.6 Trade name: Name or denomination developed or selected by a trader
for which no legal protection has been sought or obtained in any country.
Example: The name of pear variety is Forelle, a special colour grading is
named “Vermont Beauty”, the latter being a trade name connected to the
variety.
Country of origin: Country in which the fruit or vegetable was grown and
harvested.
Official control mark: Stamp, adhesive sticker or signature on the package
reflecting the inspection of the lot.
Additional Notes:
Harvesting  separation of the commodity from the parent plant.
Perishables  food crops whose food value can be maintained over a short period of
time after harvest.
Durables  food crops whose food value can be maintained over a longer period of
time after harvest.
Quality  overall edible & aesthetic properties of crop.
Loss  any change in the chemical & physical properties of the crop w/c directly or
indirectly affects quality.
Post production  handling of crops from harvest up to the time they reach the
consumer.

Relative humidity  amount of moisture that the air contains compared to what it can
hold if saturated.
Postharvest handling  operations undertaken from the time of the crop is detached;
from the parent plant up to the time the crop in fresh or whole form reaches the end user.
Postharvest technology  constitutes an inter-disciplinary science applied to
agricultural commodities after harvest.
Primary processing  removal of unneeded or inedible part of the crop either or not
intended to be processed into other product forms.
Respiration  oxidative process occurring within living cells by w/c the chemical
energy of organic molecules is released in a series of metabolic steps involving the
consumption of O2 & the liberation of CO2 & H2O.
Sources of information

1. InternationalCode of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants, Published

by the International Society for Horticultural Science (ISHS) in the
series Scripta Horticulturae, October 2009.
2. Standard layout for UNECE Standards on fresh fruits and vegetables – 2011
3. Operating
rules for the conformity checks of fruit and vegetables
covered by a standard (Annex II to the Council Decision [C(2006)95]
- OECD
4. Resolución
de la Secretaría de Agricultura y Ganadería de la
República Argentina Nº 297/83. Normas de calidad para hortalizas
frescas.
5. International
standards for phytosanitary measures ISPM 5 – glossary
of phytosanitary terms – produced by the Secretariat of the
International Plant Protection Convention. FAO, 1990, revised FAO,
1995, IPPC, 1997.
6. Code of Hygienic Practice for Fresh Fruits and Vegetables (CAC/RCP53 -
2003)
7. Code
of Hygienic Practice for the Transport of Food in Bulk and
Semi-Packed Food (CAC/RCP 47-2001).

Adopted 2016

Mr. Clarence M. Catambing FA 101-Postharvest Handling and Seed

1
Technology
CHAPTER 2 - POST-HARVEST SYSTEM AND FOOD LOSSES

2.1 Definition of the post-harvest system

"Properly considered," Spurgeon says, "the post-harvest system should be thought of as

encompassing the delivery of a crop from the time and place of harvest to the time and place of
consumption, with minimum loss, maximum efficiency and maximum return for all involved"
(The Hidden Harvest, 1976).

The term "system" denotes a dynamic, complex aggregate of logically interconnected functions
or operations within a particular sphere of activity. The term "chain" or "pipeline" highlights the
functional succession of various operations but tends to ignore their complex interaction.

In considering the system or the agro-food chain as a whole, harvesting can be seen as the
hinge, or as a ridge between the pre-harvest slope, corresponding to production activity and the
post-harvest slope, extending from harvesting to consumption. These ideas are illustrated in the
following diagrams, which give Bourne's graphic representation of the food pipeline (1977),
Spurgeon's flow diagram (1977) and Sigaut's diagram of the food web (1979).

Diagram 1. The Food Pipeline

(Source: Bourne, 1977, mimeo)

Diagram 2. Stages of a whole post-harvest system

(Source: Spurgeon, 1977)

Mr. Clarence M. Catambing FA 101-Postharvest Handling and Seed

1
Technology
 HARVESTING
(01)
handling

(02) THRESHING

DRYING
(03)
transport and distribution

(04) STORING

(05) PROCESSING

PRIMARY
PROCESSING
cleaning, classification,
dehulling, pounding,
(06) grinding,
packaging, soaking,
winnowing, drying,
sieving,
whitening, milling

SECONDARY
PROCESSING
(07) mixing, cooking, frying
moulding, cutting,
extrusion

PRODUCT
EVALUATION
(08)
quality control: standard
recipes

PACKAGING
(09) weighing, labelling,
sealing

MARKETING
(10) publicity, selling,
distribution

USE
recipes elaboration:
(11)
traditional dishes
new dishes

Mr. Clarence M. Catambing FA 101-Postharvest Handling and Seed

1
Technology
 CONSUMER
PREFERENCES
(12)
product evaluation,
consumer education

Diagram 3. Social conditions of production, distribution and consumption

(Source: Sigaut, 1979)

Mr. Clarence M. Catambing FA 101-Postharvest Handling and Seed

1
Technology
 The post-harvest system encompasses a sequence of activities and operations that can be
divided into two groups:

 technical activities: harvesting, field drying, threshing, cleaning, additional drying,

storage, processing;
 economic activities: transporting, marketing, quality control, nutrition, extension,
information and communication, administration and management.

Main elements of the post-harvest system

Harvesting. The time of harvesting is determined by the degree of maturity. With cereals and
pulses, a distinction should be made between maturity of stalks (straw), ears or seedpods and
seeds, for all that affects successive operations, particularly storage and preservation.

Pre-harvest drying, mainly for cereals and pulses. Extended pre-harvest field drying ensures
good preservation but also heightens the risk of loss due to attack (birds, rodents, insects) and
moulds encouraged by weather conditions, not to mention theft. On the other hand, harvesting
before maturity entails the risk of loss through moulds and the decay of some of the seeds.

Transport. Much care is needed in transporting a really mature harvest, in order to prevent
detached grain from falling on the road before reaching the storage or threshing place.
Collection and initial transport of the harvest thus depend on the place and conditions where it
is to be stored, especially with a view to threshing.

Post-harvest drying. The length of time needed for full drying of ears and grains depends
considerably on weather and atmospheric conditions. In structures for lengthy drying such as
cribs, or even unroofed threshing floors or terraces, the harvest is exposed to wandering
livestock and the depredations of birds, rodents or small ruminants. Apart from the actual
wastage, the droppings left by these marauders often result in higher losses than what they
actually eat. On the other hand, if grain is not dry enough, it is vulnerable to mould and can rot
during storage.

Moreover, if grain is too dry it becomes brittle and can crack after threshing, during hulling or
milling. This applies especially to rice if milling takes place a long time (two to three months)
after the grain has matured, when it can cause heavy losses. During winnowing, broken grain
can be removed with the husks and is also more susceptible to certain insects (e.g. flour beetles
and weevils). Lastly, if grain is too dry, this means a loss of weight and hence a loss of money
at the time of sale.

Threshing. If a harvest is threshed before it is dry enough, this operation will most probably be
incomplete. Furthermore, if grain is threshed when it is too damp and then immediately heaped
up or stored (in a granary or bags), it will be much more susceptible to attack from micro-
organisms, thus limiting its preservation.
Mr. Clarence M. Catambing FA 101-Postharvest Handling and Seed
1
Technology
Storage. Facilities, hygiene and monitoring must all be adequate for effective, long-term
storage. In closed structures (granaries, warehouses, hermetic bins), control of cleanliness,
temperature and humidity is particularly important. Damage caused by pests (insects, rodents)
and moulds can lead to deterioration of facilities (e.g. mites in wooden posts) and result in
losses in quality and food value as well as quantity.

Processing. Excessive hulling or threshing can also result in grain losses, particularly in the
case of rice (hulling) which can suffer cracks and lesions. The grain is then not only worth less,
but also becomes vulnerable to insects such as the rice moth (Corcyra cephalonica).

Marketing. Marketing is the final and decisive element in the post-harvest system, although it
can occur at various points in the agro-food chain, particularly at some stage in processing.
Moreover, it cannot be separated from transport, which is an essential link in the system.

Table 1. Comparison between properties of cereals and roots and tubers regarding their
storage capacity
(Source: FAO, 1984, quoted by Knoth, J., 1993)

Non-perishable food Perishable food

crops crops

Possibility of
Harvest manly
permanent or semi-
seasonal, need for
permanent
storage of long
production, needs for
duration
short-term storage

Processing in dried
Preliminary treatment
products as an
(except threshing) of
alternative of the
the crop before
shortage of fresh
storage exceptional
products

Products with low Products with high

level of moisture level of moisture in
content (10-15 percent general between 50-
or even less) 80 percent

Voluminous and
Small "fruits" of less
heavy fruits from 5 g
than 1 g
to 5 kg or even more

Respiratory activity High or even very

very low of the stored high respiratory
Mr. Clarence M. Catambing FA 101-Postharvest Handling and Seed
1
Technology
 activity of stored
products inducing a
product, heat limited heat emission in
particular in tropical
climates

Hard tissues, good

Soft tissues, highly
protection against
vulnerable
injuries

Products easily
perishable, natural
disposition for
Good natural
storage between
disposition for storage
some weeks up to
even for several years
several months
(strong influence of
the varieties)

Losses due partly to

Losses during storage endogenous factors
mainly due to (respiration,
exogenous factors transpiration,
(moisture, insects or germination) and
rodents) partly to exogenous
factors (rot, insects)

2.2 Post-harvest losses

"Losses are a measurable reduction in foodstuffs and may affect either quantity or quality"
(Tyler and Gilman, 1979). They arise from the fact that freshly harvested agricultural produce is
a living thing that breathes and undergoes changes during post-harvest handling.

Loss should not be confused with damage, which is the visible sign of deterioration, for
example, chewed grain and can only be partial. Damage restricts the use of a product, whereas
loss makes its use impossible.

Foodstuff. Products, in the present case crops, edible by human beings; more specifically, the
part fit for human consumption. In tropical countries, 75 percent of basic food comes from
cereals and pulses. The remaining vegetable-based food is often, especially in wet, wooded
zones, supplied by roots and tubers, particularly cassava, yam, taro, plantain, potato and sweet
potato. In the food chain, quantities of food are usually expressed in terms of weight but this
does not mean that organic structure and nutrients can be ignored.
Mr. Clarence M. Catambing FA 101-Postharvest Handling and Seed
1
Technology
Grains and seeds. Cereals, pulses and oilseeds grown in most climates and latitudes for human
consumption. The main cereals are wheat, maize, rice, barley, sorghum, millet, oats and rye;
pulses cover the various species of pea, bean, broad bean and lentil; and oilseeds cover soya,
groundnut, sesame, rapeseed and sunflower.

Post-harvest. If harvesting covers the period when the various products grown are removed
from the field, after maturity, the post-harvest period runs from exit from the field to the time of
culinary preparation. For various reasons, but especially to allow the straw and grain to dry
fully, harvesting may be delayed sometimes for months, as happens particularly with maize and
rice and in these cases, some people prefer to speak of "post-production" in order to indicate the
link between harvesting and post-harvest operations.

Food loss. Food loss refers to total modification or decrease of food quantity or quality which
makes it unfit for human consumption.

Moisture content. In bio-chemical terms, organic products are composed of dry matter and
water. The moisture content is the amount of free water within a given product and is expressed
either as a decimal proportion or a percentage. For example, with cereals, a 13 percent moisture
content is considered a guarantee of satisfactory grain preservation. In agriculture, moisture
content or humidity rate is usually indicated as a proportion of the moist product; i.e. the
moisture content is the proportion of the weight of moisture to the total weight of dry matter
and moisture.

Damage. Damage is a clear deterioration in the product, e.g. broken or pitted grain, which
affects more its quality than its quantity and can in the long-term result in a definite loss. Both
damage and loss should be quantified in terms of weight and cost.

Direct and indirect losses. Direct losses occur when the disappearance of a foodstuff is caused
by leakage (for example, spillage from bags) or consumption by pests (insects, rodents, birds),
whereas indirect losses occur when a reduction in quality leads to the consumer's refusal to
purchase.

Table 2. Crop production increases required to offset post-harvest losses

(Source: Bourne, 1977, mimeo)

Post- Consumabl Productio Increased

harvest e grain n required production
loss tonnes to give 100 needed to
% tonnes offset
after post-
post- harvest
harvest loss

Mr. Clarence M. Catambing FA 101-Postharvest Handling and Seed

1
Technology
 loss
%
tonnes

0 100 100 0
10 100 111 11
20 100 125 25
30 100 143 43
40 100 166 66
50 100 200 100
60 100 250 150
70 100 333 233
80 100 500 400
90 100 1000 900
100 100 Infinite Infinite

Mr. Clarence M. Catambing FA 101-Postharvest Handling and Seed

1
Technology
 LESSON II: HISTORICAL
DEVELOPMENT/IMPORTANCEOF POSTHARVEST
HANDLING

INTRODUCTION

Postharvest handling of fruits and vegetables usually involves the use of

flumes, water dump tanks, spray washers, or hydrocoolers for washing and
precooling of harvested commodities when dirt, organic matter and disease-
causing pathogens accumulate in process water. This water may contain
sanitizers for disinfection of fruits and vegetables.

OVERVIEW OF THE LESSON

At the end of this lesson, you are expected to:

1. Know the historical advancement of postharvest technology

2. Know the importance of postharvest technology

DEVELOPMENT OF POSTHARVEST
 The combine harvester got its start in Scotland in 1826 when Reverend Patrick Bell
designed a reaper—a large machine pushed by horses that used a type of scissors to cut
the stalks. But Bell did not patent his invention.
 The first working combine was the invention of Hiram Moore and John Hascall of
Kalamazoo County, Michigan who tested it in the late 1830s, patenting it in 1836. In the
same year, another American, Cyrus McCormick, was granted a patent for his famous
mechanical reaper.
 In the late 1880s, California farmer George Stockton Berry integrated the combine with
a steam engine to provide power to the mechanics. Men forked straw from the rear of
the separator back into the firebox to heat the water in the boiler.
 In Australia, John Ridley made a successful stripper harvester that simply stripped the
heads off the wheat stalks. Another Australian inventor, 20-year-old Hugh Victor
McKay, refined the process and created the first commercial combine harvester called
the Sunshine Header Harvester in 1885. The machine stripped the standing grain heads,
threshed the grain, and cleaned it in one operation.
 In 1922, Massey-Harris (now Massey Ferguson) sent one of its pull-type combines to
the Swift Current, Saskatchewan, Dominion Experimental Farm for testing and use
under prairie conditions.
 In 1857, fruits and vegetable industry was 1st started in organized manner.
 In 1927, canning of fruits and vegetable started.
Mr. Clarence M. Catambing FA 101-Postharvest Handling and Seed
1
Technology
  Nicolas Appert-Father of Canning.
 1749-John Needham explained the cause of spoilage of stored food. He saw that boiled
mutton gravy, even when stored in a tightly corked bottle, spoiled after some time due to
spontaneous generation of microorganisms.
 1765- Lazzaro Spallanzi, stated that the untreated air inside the vessel contained
organisms responsible for spoilage.
 1786- Scottish mechanical engineer Andrew Meikle invented the threshing machine to
remove the outer husks from grains of wheat.
 1804-Nicolas Appert 1st preserved the food in a glass container.
 1809-Appert was awarded and his book “The Art of Preserving Animals and Vegetable
Substances for Many Years” was published.
 1819- Canning was introduced to USA.
 1843-Winslow and Raymond Appert reported that canned foods could be processed
under prseeure by steam and water
 Appertizing-also known as canning.
 1935- In India, 1st fruit and vegetable processing industry was established in Bombay.
 1864-Pasteurization by Louis Pasteur.
 1949- 1st fruit preservation and canning institute was established at Lucknow, India.
 France-origin of canning.
IMPORTANCE OF POSTHARVEST
 It prevents post-harvest losses.
 It adds values to agricultural products. The crops along with its nutrients are properly
conserved.
 It supports in the poverty issues of the economy as it generates employment opportunities
for the locals.
Objectives of Postharvest Technology:
1. To maintain quality
2. To protect food safety
3. To reduce losses between harvest and consumption
CHARACTERISTICS OF PERISHABLE CROPS AFFECTING THEIR POSTHARVEST LIFE
1. Requires energy
2. Constant state of change
3. High in water content
4. React to adverse environmental conditions
[Link] to attack by pathogens and insects

Mr. Clarence M. Catambing FA 101-Postharvest Handling and Seed

2
Technology
 MODULE II
BASIS OF POSTHARVEST
HANDLING TECHNOLOGIES

Lesson 1 Morpho-anatomical Basis of

Postharvest Technologies

Lesson 2 Physio-chemical Basis of

Postharvest Handling

Lesson 3 Physical Properties of Fresh

Produce for Post Development
Harvest Technology

Mr. Clarence M. Catambing FA 101-Postharvest Handling and Seed

2
Technology
 MODULE II

MORPHO-ANATOMICAL BASIS OF POSTHARVEST TECHNOLOGIES

 INTRODUCTION

This module discusses the morpho-anatomical basis and physio-chemical basis of

postharvest technologies and physical properties of fresh produce for post-development
of harvest technology.

GENERAL OBJECTIVES

After studying this module, you should be able to:

4. Explain the morpho-anatomical basis of postharvest technologies.
5. Explain the physio-chemical basis of postharvest technologies.
6. Know the physical properties of fresh produce for post development harvest
technology.

 DIRECTIONS/ MODULE ORGANIZER

There are three lessons in this module. Read each lesson carefully and asses yourself how
much you have benefited from it. Answer the quick assessment and submit your output to
your subject instructor.

In case you encounter difficulty in understanding your lesson, discuss this with your
subject instructor.

Happy reading and learning!

Mr. Clarence M. Catambing FA 101-Postharvest Handling and Seed

2
Technology
 LESSON I: MORPHO-ANATOMICAL BASIS OF
POSTHARVEST TECHNOLOGIES

INTRODUCTION

Post-harvest technology is immensely important in ensuring that crops are stored

and transported properly. It can help to reduce wastage and improve the quality of the
crops. There are a number of different technologies that can be used, and it is important
to select the right one for each crop.

OVERVIEW OF THE LESSON

At the end of this lesson, you are expected to:

1. Explain the morpho-anatomical basis of postharvest technologies.

BASIS

1. Plant part or organ utilized

The response of a commodity to
its surroundings and to the
method of handling depends on
what organ it is.
Leaves and flowers wilt easily,
flower buds open, fruits ripen,
bulbs, tubers and storage roots
sprout and shoot tips elongate.
Other parts include stem and
roots.

Leaf changes

Leaf quality often determines

when fruits and vegetables should
be harvested. In root crops, the
Mr. Clarence M. Catambing FA 101-Postharvest Handling and Seed
2
Technology
 condition of the leaves can likewise indicate the condition of the crop below ground. For
example, if potatoes are to be stored, then the optimum harvest time is soon after the
leaves and stems have died. If harvested earlier, the skins will be less resistant to
harvesting and handling damage and more prone to storage diseases.

Flower
Unopened buds transport and store better than opened flowers, but when not picked
correctly, the buds may open prematurely or not at all.

Asparagus-the edible part is called spear.

Banana blossom-the usual edible parts are the layers of tender yellowish inner covering
called bracts.
Broccoli/Cauliflower-the inflorescence is called curd and each flower is called floret.
Cabbage, lettuce and Chinese cabbage-wrapper leaves are loose leaves that enclose the
ball-shaped compact set of leaves called head. The butt is the end of the remaining stem.
Celery-the petiole which is the most valuable economic part is usually referred to as
stalk.
Onion bulb-is composed of modified leaf bases called scales.
Garlic bulb-has papery scales that enclosed several enlarged fleshly leafy bases called
cloves.
Potato-is a modified stem which has several depressions called eyes and has actually
eyebrows which are above the eye.

2. Nature of the fruit wall

Fruits and fruit vegetables vary in the nature of their

fruit walls. This influences the effect of the
environment on the organ and its susceptibility to
mechanical damage, insects and diseases.
-The thin outer part of the fruit wall and succulent
pulp of some fruits like tomatoes make them
susceptible to damage.
-Fruits with leathery peel are less susceptible to
bruises as in starfruit and apple.
-Fruits with thick and hard fruit wall like cucumbers,
melons and squash are better able to withstand
damage than those with soft fruit walls like tomatoes and bananas.

The fruit wall consists of both the peel and the edible portion excluding seed.

Rind-the tough and leathery peel of citrus and watermelon

Pulp-the edible portion of citrus.
Mr. Clarence M. Catambing FA 101-Postharvest Handling and Seed
2
Technology
 Aril-the edible portion of rambutan, mangosteen, durian and lanzones.

3. Surface area to volume ratio

It determines the reactive area for respiration, transpiration and penetration of chemicals
and microorganisms. The greater the surface area to volume ratio, the faster the
diffusion of gases involved in respiration, exit of water through transpiration and entry
of microorganisms and chemicals. These result to shorter postharvest life.
High surface to volume ratio would mean greater diffusional area per volume of water
saturated space. The cuticle is considered as the prime barrier to water loss.

4. Nature of the cuticle

The cuticle is the non-cellular waxy layer above the epidermal cells of the commodity.
The epidermal cells comprise the first layer of the cells exposed to the environment. The
thicker and more complex the cuticle, the greater is its protective capacity for:
 Moisture loss
 Penetration of microorganism and chemicals
 Mechanical damage
 Temperature changes
 Escape of flavor components

Immature fruits deteriorate at a faster rate than mature ones. Mature fruits have thick,
complex and waxy cuticles whereas immature ones have thin, irregular and less waxy
cuticle. In winged beans, the wing potion has thinner cuticle, hence it wilts at a faster
rate than the other parts of the pod. Lanzones is not waxy. Hence, lanzones losses water
fast which shows up as browning. Pomelo has thicker rind hence losses water slower
compared to dalandan.
5. Number of stomata
The stomata are the main passageways for the loss of water and entry of air for
respiration. The more stomata, the faster will be the deterioration of the commodities.
As the cuticle develops during full development and maturation, some of the stomata get
covered. Pechay has 13,000 stomates per cm 2 in the lower surface of one leaf and
possibly twice as much for both surfaces.
Immature fruits have more stomata than mature ones which partially explains why
immature fruits deteriorate faster.

6. Number of hairs and spines

Hairs and spines are elongations of the epidermal cells. Visible hairs or spines are
known as emergences, while hairs which may not be visible to the naked eye are called
trichomes.
The special name for the hair of rambutan is spintern. A single rambutan has 200 to 400

Mr. Clarence M. Catambing FA 101-Postharvest Handling and Seed

2
Technology
 spinterns with several trichomes per spintern.
The more trichomes, the faster is the deterioration since they increase the surface area to
volume ratio of the commodities. Ex: lanzones has trichomes aside from having no wax
on the cuticle; Chinese cabbage has more trichomes than mustard which pechay has
none.
7. Presence of lenticels
Lenticels are circular groups of protruding air-filled cells with a central opening which
often takes the place of stomates in fruits, stems and roots. The lenticels found on the
epidermis of different plant organs (stem, petiole, fruits) made up of parenchymatous
cells are pores that always remain open, in contrast to stomata, which regulate their
extent of opening. Lenticels are visible on fruit surfaces, such as mango, apple, and
avocado. Lenticels permit the exchange of gases between the environment and the
internal tissue spaces of the organs (stems and some fruits). They permit the entrance of
oxygen and simultaneously the output of carbon dioxide and water vapor. In apple fruit,
lenticels account for up to 21% of the transpiration.
Lenticel is caused when the fruit has taken up water prior to harvest. The cells become
turgid and filled with water. The swollen cells become more sensitive and brown
quickly on the surface. Jostling and rubbing during transportation and packing can
agitate the turgid cells causing them to burst and lenticel to develop more rapidly
After harvest, mangoes can develop lenticel discoloration, pebbled surface appearance,
peel pitting and grayish discoloration, and inability to ripen—beginning with loss of
aroma development—may develop as a result of chilling injury from low temperature
exposure. The chilling threshold temperature for mature green mangoes varies from
10°C to 15°C for different cultivars.
For apples, lenticel breakdown shows darkened lenticels or superficial small brown
spots that become sunken over time. It occurs on apples several days after packing.
For potato, lenticel spot is a common physiological disorder that occurs when lenticels
enlarge. Potato tubers are living organisms, so when they are unable to obtain sufficient
oxygen, the lenticels enlarge to acquire more oxygen. Lenticels have been reported to
provide an entry point for other pathogens of potato tubers, such as Dickeya species,
powdery scab (Spongospora subterranea), late blight (Phytophthora infestans), pythium
leak (Pythium ultimum), pink rot (Phytophthora erythroseptica) and common scab
(Streptomyces scabies).
In avocado, lenticels are small 1-5mm diameter brown spots that develop on the surface
of the avocado skin. Lenticel develop after harvesting, especially during the rainy
season. They can increase in size on the fruit in the days after harvest and start to form
larger black areas referred to as spotting. Lenticel spotting does not affect the internal
quality of the fruit. An avocado with lenticel will ripen as normal and as the skin color
darkens, the lenticel will become less apparent.

8. Presence of laticifers
Laticifers are sap or latex producing ducts surrounding the vascular bundles. When the
Mr. Clarence M. Catambing FA 101-Postharvest Handling and Seed
2
Technology
 laticifers are cut open (when harvested or injured) latex is released. Hence, the flows of
latex on the stem must be avoided or washed off before it hardens.
Laticifer cells are present in
approximately 10% of all
flowering plants and compose a
tubular network filled with
milky latex, which contains a
broad range of specialized
metabolites and defense
proteins. Although its specific
function is not entirely clear,
latex is thought to play a role in
plant defense by creating a
physical and chemical barrier
against pests. Coagulated latex
facilitates wound closure and
pest entrapment, while secretory
compounds within the latex
may have an antibiotic effect.
In lotus (Nelumbo nucifera),
stem exudes a large quantity of sticky milky sap from the cut surface, which is produced
in laticifers, spatially associated with both xylem and phloem. It has been reported that
latex coagulates on the cut surface preventing or reducing water absorption and reducing
flowers.
In lettuce, fluctuating water availability in combination with local calcium deficiency
leads to overpressure in laticifer vessels, resulting in deformations of the weakened cell
walls and leakage of latex into neighboring tissue, which causes the browning
phenomenon tipburn.
Similarly, in growing chicory leaves, rapid water uptake during cell elongation, is
thought to cause excessive asymmetrical pressure between laticifers and the surrounding
tissue. This can cause laticifer cells to rupture and bleed latex into the intercellular
space, causing the elongated red spots that are typical for external red discoloration of
the leaves. The rupture of laticifer cells has also been mentioned in the context of
internal red and leaf edge browning.

Mr. Clarence M. Catambing FA 101-Postharvest Handling and Seed

2
Technology
 LESSON II: PHYSIO-CHEMICAL BASIS OF
POSTHARVEST HANDLING

INTRODUCTION

Postharvest handling is the stage of crop production immediately following harvest,

including cooling, cleaning, sorting and packing. The instant a crop is removed from the
ground, or separated from its parent plant, it begins to deteriorate. Post-harvest treatment
largely determines final quality, whether a crop is sold for fresh consumption, or used as an
ingredient in a processed food product.

OVERVIEW OF THE LESSON

At the end of this lesson, you are expected to:

3. Explain the physio-chemical basis of postharvest technologies.

CHEMICAL BASIS OF POSTHARVEST TECHNOLOGIES

1. Carbohydrate Content
Fruit and vegetables are complex carbohydrates which supply nutrients such as vitamins
and minerals. Storage organs contain more carbohydrates, hence usually last longer.
When sugars are being converted to starch, there is a loss of sweetness in commodities
such as in corn. The conversion of starch to sugars in potatoes (when stored at a
temperature below 10℃) becomes undesirable for processing. Sugar causes browning
during cooking.
2. Presence of Protopectins
Pectic substances are mainly deposited in the cell wall and middle lamella, acting as
cementing materials. They occur in the form of:
 Protopectin-is one of the substances which form insoluble salts with calcium or
magnesium and is found as a cementing substance between cells.
 Pectinic acids
 Pectin-is a carbohydrate in the cell wall of plants. It is a breakdown product from
hemicelluloses (protopectins) which is generated during ripening of the fruit.
Pectin itself is later broken down to pectinic acid and finally pectic acid. During
this chemical breakdown process, the fruit gets softer as the cell walls
Mr. Clarence M. Catambing FA 101-Postharvest Handling and Seed
2
Technology
 degenerate. Under acidic conditions, pectin forms a gel. This effect is used for
making jams and jellies.
-Guava, pineapples and oranges contain high pectin, while soft fruits like
cherries and strawberries contain few.
 Pectic acids
Total pectic substances increase in amount during the development of fruits. As the fruit
ripens, the contents of soluble pectates increase while the total pectic substances
decrease.
3. Pigment
The change of color during ripening is due to changes in the pigments. Color changes,
for example, are due to alterations in the chlorophyll and pigment content of the
plastids. Changes in fruit color typically involve the destruction of chlorophyll to reveal
other pigments already present and may also involve the synthesis of additional
pigments.
More than 25 years ago, Von Loesecke revealed that the yellowing of banana peels
during ripening is essentially an unmasking of preexisting carotenoids as chlorophyll is
broken down, although more recent work has shown that subtle changes do occur in the
various carotenoids present.
In tomato, carotenoid synthesis accompanies the loss of chlorophyll, while in fruits that
turn purple, blue, or black, anthocyanins are synthesized as chlorophyll is depleted. In
tomato, where this process has been well studied and represents the transformation of
the chloroplast into a chromoplast, carotenoid synthesis has been shown to be light
dependent (Giovannoni, 2001).
Main Pigments Responsible for specific Color of Some Commodities
Color Main Pigment
Green, blue green, yellow green in most chlorophyll
commodities
Red in tomatoes Lycopene
Orange in carrots Carotene
Red in strawberry Anthocyanin
Yellow in papaya Cryptoxanthin
Purple in eggplant Delphinidine

Pigment Color Found In

Anthocyanins Blue/purple/red Berries, grapes, red
peppers, beets, plums
Beta-carotene Orange/Yellow Carrots, pumpkin, sweet
potatoes, citrus, papaya,
Mr. Clarence M. Catambing FA 101-Postharvest Handling and Seed
2
Technology
 melon, squash
Curcumin Yellow Turmeric
Lutein Yellow/orange Kale, broccoli, spinach
Lycopene Red Tomatoes, watermelon, red
grapefruits
Zeaxanthin Yellow Corn
Capsanthin/Capsorubin Red Red pepper

Fruit Carotenoid Concentration Reference

(mg 100 g-1)
Apricot 0.1–4 Kurz et al. (2008)
Tomato 10.5–27.8 Ilahy et al. (2011)
Citrus species 0.02–5 Fanciullino et al. (2008)
Papaya 1.5–3 De Souza et al. (2008
Loquat 0.1–2 Zhou et al. (2007)
Pepper 0.2–20 Topuz and Ozdemir (2007
Watermelon 3–7 Perkins-Veazie et al. (2001

4. Fats and acids

Saturated fats are those types of fat that are harmful and increase cholesterol levels.
However, monounsaturated fats (avocado fat) and polyunsaturated are not harmful and
don not increase cholesterol levels. On the contrary, monounsaturated fats and avocado
fat help lower cholesterol.
Fats Avocado
Malic acid Apple
Citric acid Citrus, pineapple, lemons, grapes
Ascorbic acid Guava, orange, grapes
Tartaric acid Grapes, bananas, tamarind

At maturation, reducing sugar increases while the acidity decreases, hence the
matured/ripe commodities taste sweeter.

PHYSIOLOGICAL BASIS OF POSTHARVEST TECHNOLOGY

Mr. Clarence M. Catambing FA 101-Postharvest Handling and Seed
3
Technology
 All fruits and vegetables are living organs. They use oxygen and produce carbon
dioxide during respiration, the process by which carbohydrates and other substrates,
such as organic acids, proteins and fats, are metabolized.
1. Respiration
- Is an oxidation process by which organic materials or products of photosynthesis are
broken down to simpler forms accompanied by the release of energy and heat.
- In the process of respiration, the food reserves of the plant are used up.

-
Respiration provides the energy necessary for cells to maintain structure and for
ripening processes such as color and flavor development. The substrates cannot be
replenished once the fruit or vegetable has been removed from the plant. Faster
respiration rates will result in loss of food nutritional value, loss of saleable weight,

- This process is a very god indicator of the potential postharvest life of a commodity.
- Faster respiration means faster release of heat which increases the temperature of the
surroundings of the commodity especially if packed tightly.
- The higher the temperature in which the vegetables and fruits are kept the faster is
the respiration. The faster the respiration, the faster the food reserves are used up.
- The energy source is depleted and the build up of compounds necessary for
maintaining the organization of the tissues and cells stops.
- The commodities with high respiration rates cannot be expected to last long.
- Commodities with low respiration rates are storage organs. Ex: onions, potato, gabi,
sweet potato, yams and ginger. Respiration date as about 1.52 mg CO2 /kg/ha.

Mr. Clarence M. Catambing FA 101-Postharvest Handling and Seed

3
Technology
 - Commodities with intermediate rates are exemplified by many fruits at physiological
maturity. Ex: the respiration rate of lanzones is 70 mg CO2 /kg/ha.
- Commodities with high rates are organs at immature stage. Ex: asparagus, snap
beans, cauliflower, okra, young corn, bean sprouts. The respiration rate is 570.6 mg
CO2 /kg/ha at 26℃.
- A high respiration rate leads to:

 Rapid metabolite depletion

 Increased heat generation
Shelf Life and Respiration Rate
In general, there is an inverse relationship between respiration rates and the postharvest life of
fresh vegetables. The higher the respiration rate, the more perishable (shorter postharvest life)
the commodity. Respiration plays a major role in the postharvest life of fresh vegetables for the
reasons given below:
1. Loss of Substrate
Use of various substrates in respiration can result in loss of food reserves in the tissue
and loss of taste quality (especially sweetness) and food value to the consumer. For
certain commodities that are stored for extended periods of time, such as onions (Allium
cepa L.) for dehydration, the loss of dry weight due to respiration can be significant.
When hexose sugar is the substrate, 180 g of sugars are lost for each 264 g of CO 2
produced by the commodity.
2. Oxygen Requirements
An adequate O2 concentration must be available to maintain aerobic respiration. This
should be considered in selecting the various postharvest handling procedures, such as
waxing and other surface coatings, film wrapping, and packaging. On the other hand,
reduction of O2 concentration to less than 10% provides a tool for controlling respiration
rate and slowing down senescence.
3. Carbon Dioxide Production
Accumulation of CO2 produced by the commodity in its ambient atmosphere can be
beneficial or harmful, depending upon each commodity's tolerance to elevated CO 2
levels. For some vegetables, increasing the CO2 concentration around them in a
controlled or modified atmosphere can be used to delay senescence and retard fungal
growth.
4. Release of Heat Energy
The heat produced by respiration (vital heat), which is about 673 kcal for each mole of
sugar (180 g) utilized, can be a major factor in establishing the refrigeration
requirements during transport and storage. Vital heat must be considered in selecting
proper methods for cooling, package design, method of stacking packages, and
refrigerated storage facilities (i.e., refrigeration capacity, air circulation, and ventilation).

FACTORS AFFECTING RESPIRATION RATE

Mr. Clarence M. Catambing FA 101-Postharvest Handling and Seed

3
Technology
 A. Commodity (Internal) Factors
1. Type of Commodity and Genotype
Vegetables vary greatly in their respiration rates. (Root, tuber, and bulb vegetables have
low respiration rates. Fruit-type vegetables that are picked mature, such as tomato
(Lycopersicon esculentum) and melons (Cucumis melo L), respire at a lower rate than
those picked immature, such as green beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L), peas (Pisum
sativum L), sweetcorn (Zea mays L var. rugosa Bonaf.), and okra (Abelmoschus
esculentus (L.) Moench.]. Plant parts with vegetative floral meristematic tissues, such as
asparagus (Asparagus officinalis L), broccoli (Brassica oleracea L, Botrytis group), and
green onions, have very high respiration rates. In general, the degree of perishability of
fresh vegetables is directly proportional to their respiration rates.
Differences among plant parts in the surface area-to-volume ratio and in the nature of
their surface coatings (e.g., cuticle thickness, stomata, lenticels) influence their gas
diffusion characteristics and consequently their respiration rates. Such differences are
also responsible for genotypic variation in respiratory activity within a given
commodity, as shown for lettuce (Lactuca sativa) types. Preharvest factors, such as
climatic conditions and cultural practices, can also affect the morphological and
compositional characteristics of a given genotype, which, in turn, influences its
respiration rate.
2. Stage of Development at Harvest
The respiration rate is usually very high during the early stages of development and
decreases as plant organs mature. Thus, vegetables harvested during the active growth
phase-such as leafy, floral, and immature fruit-type vegetables-have high respiration
rates. Generally, the respiration rate declines steadily after harvest; the decrease is slow
in mature fruit-type vegetables and rapid in vegetative tissues and immature fruit-type
vegetables. This rapid fall reflects depletion of respirable substrates, which are typically
low in such tissues.

Mr. Clarence M. Catambing FA 101-Postharvest Handling and Seed

3
Technology
 An exception to the declining pattern of postharvest respiration is the respiration of
certain fruit-type vegetables that undergo a definite ripening phase on or off the plant.
These vegetables show a marked rise in respiration, which has been called the"
climacteric pattern" and is normally considered as having four phases: preclimacteric
minimum, climacteric rise, climacteric peak, and postclimacteric phase. Fruit-type

vegetables that exhibit a climacteric pattern of respiration include cantaloupe melons,

Crenshaw and honeydew melons (Cucumis melo Inodorus group), chili pepper
(Capsicum annuum), tomato, and watermelon (Citrullus lanatus). In contrast,
nonclimacteric fruit-type vegetables-which include green bean, pea, cucumber (Cucumis
sativus L), summer squash (Cucurbita pepo), casaba melon (Cucumis melo) eggplant
(Solanum melongena), bell pepper (Capsicum anuum L Grossum group), okra, and
some tomato mutants (e.g., rin tomato)-exhibit a steady decline in respiration after
harvest. The division between climacteric and nonclimacteric fruits is not absolute, as
the magnitude of the respiratory rise varies from less than 0% to over 100% among
cultivars and species. This compares with the hundred- to thousandfold increase in the
production of the plant hormone C 2H4, which usually accompanies the respiratory rise in
ripening climacteric. Exposure to C2H4 stimulates the respiration of vegetative tissues
and both climacteric and nonclimacteric fruit tissues.
Phases of the respiratory climacteric in a ripening climacteric fruit. (From Watada et al.,
1984.)
3. Chemical Composition
Generally, the respiration rate decreases with a decrease in water content of the tissue.
The substrate (e.g., carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, organic acids, etc.) that is
predominately utilized in respiratory metabolism usually dictates the value of the
respiration rate.
B. Environmental (External) Factors
1. Temperature

Mr. Clarence M. Catambing FA 101-Postharvest Handling and Seed

3
Technology
Temperature is the most important environmental factor in the postharvest life of fresh
vegetables because of its dramatic effect on rates of biological reactions, including respiration.
Within the physiological temperature range, the velocity of a biological reaction increases two-
to threefold for every l0℃ rise in temperature.
2. Oxygen Concentration
Storing crisphead lettuce in 2% O 2 atmosphere significantly reduces its respiration rate, and the
extent of reduction is greater as the temperature increases from 0 to 20°C. The respiration rate
of broccoli heads kept at 2.5°C also decreases as the O 2 concentration in their ambient
atmospheres is reduced. Relative to heads held in air, the reduction in respiration rate is about
28%, 36%, and 45% for broccoli heads in 2, 1, and 0.5% O2, respectively.
As the O2 concentration is reduced below that in air (20.9%) and especially below 10%, a
significant reduction in respiration rate is observed (Gorny, 1997; Toledo et ai., 1969).
However, when O2 concentration drops to less than about 2% (the exact concentration depends
on the commodity temperature, and duration), anaerobic respiration rate becomes predominant
and CO2 production increases. Also, a substantial accumulation of fermentative metabolites-
e.g., ethanol and acetaldehyde-could be toxic to plant cells.
3. Carbon Dioxide Concentration
Elevated CO2 levels reduce aerobic respiration (O2 consumption). However, at CO2
concentrations of about 20%, a significant increase in anaerobic respiration (i.e., ethanol and
acetaldehyde accumulation) occurs and can irreversibly damage the tissue. Increased CO 2
levels, as in the case of O2 depletion, inhibit the decarboxylation reactions of normal
respiration. Thus, extent of damage depends upon CO 2 and O2 concentrations around the
commodity, temperature, and duration f exposure to these conditions. Carbon dioxide-induced
physiological disorders can res It in tissue injury and increased respiration rate.
4. Carbon Monoxide Concentration
Carbon monoxide at 1% to 10% added to air or controlled atmospheres reduces [ the respiration
rate of vegetative tissues. However, as an ethylene analog, CO added to ai stimulates the
respiration rate of climacteric fruits, such as tomatoes. This stimulatory effect is minimized
when CO is added to atmospheres in which the O2 level is below 5%.
5. Ethylene Concentration
Exposure of climacteric tissues during their preclimacteric stage to C 2H4 shortens the time to the
start of the climacteric rise in respiration. Once the respiratory rise has begun, the tissue's
endogenous rate of C2H4 production increases and the internal C2H4 concentration also
increases, reaching levels that saturate its biological activity. Thus, the rate of endogenous C 2H4
production, not the added C2H4, controls the height of the final respiratory rise in climacteric
tissues. In contrast, C2H4treatment of non-climacteric tissues, in which endogenous C2H4levels
are very low, induces a climacteric-like rise in respiration that is proportional to C 2H4
concentrations. However, unlike the case in climacteric tissues, endogenous C 2H4 production
remains unaffected. Removal of C2H4 results in a return of the respiration rate to its pretreatment
level. The respiratory response of non-climacteric tissues to C 2H4 can be repeatedly induced
throughout their postharvest life.
6. Stresses

Mr. Clarence M. Catambing FA 101-Postharvest Handling and Seed

3
Technology
Physical stress stimulates the respiration rate of fresh vegetables. For example, impact bruising
of mature-green tomatoes increases their rates of respiration and ethylene production during
subsequent ripening at 20°C. The extent of this increase in respiration rate is usually
proportional to the severity of bruising; however, extensive injury can actually depress
respiration.
Any mechanical injury-such as cutting, abrading, slicing, and shredding of vegetables during
harvesting, handling, or processing into fresh-cut or minimally processed, value-added
products-increases their respiration rates. The magnitudes of CO 2 production and O2
consumption increase with the degree of wounding (Saltveit, 1997). For example, the
respiration rate of grated or shredded carrots (Daucus carota) is higher than that of sliced
carrots, whose respiration rate is higher than that of whole-pee ed carrot sections (Gorny, 1997).
Water stress, which is induced by lower than optimum relative humidity in the air surrounding
the commodity, can stimulate the rate of respiration. When water loss exceeds about 5%, the
respiration rate may be reduced, but at the same time wilting and shriveling become noticeable,
resulting in an unmarketable product. Biological stress, such as the incidence of disease, also
increases respiration rate.
2. Transpiration
- Is the loss of water from the plants.
Most fresh produce contains from 65 to 95% water when harvested. Within growing plants
there is a constant flow of water. Liquid water is absorbed from the soil by the roots, then
passed up through the stems and finally is lost from the aerial parts, especially leaves, as water
vapor.
The passage of water through the plants is called the transpiration stream. It maintains the high-
water content of the plant, and the pressure inside the plant helps to support it. A lack of water
will cause plants to wilt and perhaps to die.
Most fruits and vegetables are composed of cells loosely bound together with considerable
intercellular spaces which interconnect and lead to lenticels or stomates.
Water from cells vaporizes into the intercellular spaces and maintains an essentially saturated
atmosphere.
Water vapor may then move to the atmosphere through the stomates or lenticels, stem scars or
through injured areas or directly through breaks in the cuticle.
When the harvested produce loses 5 or 10 %of its fresh weight, it begins to wilt and soon
becomes unusable. To extend the usable life of produce, its rate of water loss must be as low as
possible.

CONSEQUENCES OF WATER LOSS

- Loss in weight of all commodities
- Softening of fruits and vegetables
- Wilting of leaves and flowers
- Shriveling of fruits and root crops
- Stem end rind breakdown of oranges
Mr. Clarence M. Catambing FA 101-Postharvest Handling and Seed
3
Technology
 - Discoloration of rambutan and lanzones
The faster water is lost from the commodity, the faster it losses its freshness. Therefore, transpiration
should be slowed down to keep the commodity fresh.

3. Ripening of fruits

Fleshy fruits undergo a natural stage of development known as ripening. This occurs when
the fruit has ceased growing and is said to be mature. Ripeness is followed by ageing (often
called senescence) and breakdown of the fruit. The fruit referred to here includes those used as
vegetables or salads, such as eggplant, sweet pepper, tomato, breadfruit and avocado.

There are two characteristic types of fruit ripening that show different patterns of
respiration:

 Non-climacteric fruit ripening-refers to those fruits which ripen only while still attached
to the parent plant. Their eating quality suffers if they are harvested before they are fully
ripe because their sugar and acid content does not increase further. Respiration rate
slows gradually during growth and after harvest. Maturation and ripening are a gradual
process. Examples are: cherry, cucumber, grape, lemon, pineapple.
 Climacteric fruit ripening-refers to fruits that can be harvested when mature but before
ripening has begun. These fruits may be ripened naturally or artificially. The start of
ripening is accompanied by a rapid rise in respiration rate, called the respiratory
climacteric. After the climacteric, the respiration slows down as the fruit ripens and
develops good eating quality. Examples are: apple, banana, melon, papaya, tomato.

In commercial fruit production and marketing, artificial ripening is used to control the rate of
ripening, thus enabling transport and distribution to be carefully planned.

Ethylene (C2H4) is a hormone in gas form which causes the following in harvested
crops:
 Hastens ripening
 Promotes sprouting of root, tuber and bulb crops
 Induces abscission of leaves, petals or cutflowers
Conditions which will slowdown the rate of respiration and transpiration in plants
1. Low temperature
The higher the temperature above the optimum temperature, the faster is the rate of
respiration and transpiration and consequently shorter postharvest life.
Keeping a commodity at a low temperature is thus the most effective way of
extending postharvest life.
2. Low oxygen in the immediate environment
A high concentration of oxygen (21%) will result to faster respiration rate and
shorter postharvest life.

Mr. Clarence M. Catambing FA 101-Postharvest Handling and Seed

3
Technology
 Oxygen levels below 21% but usually not less than 5% will slow down respiration.
Very low oxygen concentration will however result in fermentation which is an
abnormal form of respiration resulting in alcoholic odor or undesirable flavor and
tissue collapse.
3. High relative humidity
The lower the relative humidity of the air, the faster is the transpiration. Since
commodities are considered to have relative humidity close to 100%, it is therefore
important to keep them under moist conditions, that is, at high relative humidity
even at low temperature.

Mr. Clarence M. Catambing FA 101-Postharvest Handling and Seed

3
Technology
 LESSON III: PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF FRESH
PRODUCE FOR POST DEVELOPMENT
HARVEST TECHNOLOGY

INTRODUCTION

Besides the visual quality, sensory quality, and nutritive value of produce, any
discussion of postharvest management of perishable horticultural foods that are eaten fresh
must include an overview of food safety management. The need to minimize the potential for
injury or illness to consumers is independent of a farm’s scale or range of distribution and is the
clear responsibility of primary producers and suppliers. Beyond the general reaffirmation of the
need for commonsense measures to ensure food safety, this chapter gives some more specific
guidance that can increase your awareness of preharvest risks and the need to plan for
responsible postharvest management and meet the expectations of public health regulations
(U.S. FDA, 2008).

OVERVIEW OF THE LESSON

At the end of this lesson, you are expected to:

1. Determine the physical properties of fresh produce for post-development

harvest technology.

The principles dictating at which stage of maturity a fruit or vegetable should be harvested are
crucial to its subsequent storage and marketable life and quality. Post-harvest physiologists
distinguish three stages in the life span of fruits and vegetables: maturation, ripening, and
senescence. Maturation is indicative of the fruit being ready for harvest. At this point, the edible
part of the fruit or vegetable is fully developed in size, although it may not be ready for
immediate consumption. Ripening follows or overlaps maturation, rendering the produce
edible, as indicated by taste. Senescence is the last stage, characterized by natural degradation
of the fruit or vegetable, as in loss of texture, flavor, etc. (senescence ends at the death of the
tissue of the fruit).

Skin color:

This factor is commonly applied to fruits, since skin color changes as fruit ripens or matures.
Some fruits exhibit no perceptible color change during maturation, depending on the type of
fruit or vegetable. Assessment of harvest maturity by skin color depends on the judgment of the
harvester, but color charts are available for cultivars, such as apples, tomatoes, peaches, chili
peppers, etc.

Optical methods:
Mr. Clarence M. Catambing FA 101-Postharvest Handling and Seed
3
Technology
Light transmission properties can be used to measure the degree of maturity of fruits. These
methods are based on the chlorophyll content of the fruit, which is reduced during maturation.
The fruit is exposed to a bright light, which is then switched off so that the fruit is in total
darkness. Next, a sensor measures the amount of light emitted from the fruit, which is
proportional to its chlorophyll content and thus its maturity.

Shape:

The shape of fruit can change during maturation and can be used as a characteristic to
determine harvest maturity. For instance, a banana becomes more rounded in cross-sections and
less angular as it develops on the plant. Mangoes also change shape during maturation. As the
mango matures on the tree the relationship between the shoulders of the fruit and the point at
which the stalk is attached may change. The shoulders of immature mangoes slope away from
the fruit stalk; however, on more mature mangoes the shoulders become level with the point of
attachment, and with even more maturity the shoulders may be raised above this point.

Size:

Changes in the size of a crop while growing are frequently used to determine the time of
harvest. For example, partially mature cobs of Zea mays saccharata are marketed as sweet corn,
while even less mature and thus smaller cobs are marketed as baby corn. For bananas, the width
of individual fingers can be used to determine harvest maturity. Usually, a finger is placed
midway along the bunch and its maximum width is measured with calipers; this is referred to as
the caliper grade.

Aroma:

Most fruits synthesize volatile chemicals as they ripen. Such chemicals give fruit its
characteristic odour and can be used to determine whether it is ripe or not. These doors may
only be detectable by humans when a fruit is completely ripe, and therefore has limited use in
commercial situations.

Fruit opening:

Some fruits may develop toxic compounds during ripening, such as ackee tree fruit, which
contains toxic levels of hypoglycine. The fruit splits when it is fully mature, revealing black
seeds on yellow arils. At this stage, it has been shown to contain minimal amounts of
hypoglycine or none at all. This creates a problem in marketing; because the fruit is so mature,
it will have a very short post-harvest life. Analysis of hypoglycine ‘A’ (hyp.) in ackee tree fruit
revealed that the seed contained appreciable hyp. at all stages of maturity, at approximately
1000 ppm, while levels in the membrane mirrored those in the arils. This analysis supports
earlier observations that unopened or partially opened ackee fruit should not be consumed,
whereas fruit that opens naturally to over 15 mm of lobe separation poses little health hazard,
provided the seed and membrane portions are removed. These observations agree with those of
Brown et al. (1992) who stated that bright red, full sized ackee should never be forced open for
human consumption.

Abscission:
Mr. Clarence M. Catambing FA 101-Postharvest Handling and Seed
4
Technology
As part of the natural development of a fruit an abscission layer is formed in the pedicel. For
example, in cantaloupe melons, harvesting before the abscission layer is fully developed results
in inferior flavoured fruit, compared to those left on the vine for the full period.

Firmness:

A fruit may change in texture during maturation, especially during ripening when it may
become rapidly softer. Excessive loss of moisture may also affect the texture of crops. These
textural changes are detected by touch, and the harvester may simply be able to gently squeeze
the fruit and judge whether the crop can be harvested. Today sophisticated devices have been
developed to measure texture in fruits and vegetables, for example, texture analyzers and
pressure testers; they are currently available for fruits and vegetables in various forms. A force
is applied to the surface of the fruit, allowing the probe of the penetrometer or texturometer to
penetrate the fruit flesh, which then gives a reading on firmness. Hand held pressure testers
could give variable results because the basis on which they are used to measure firmness is
affected by the angle at which the force is applied. Two commonly used pressure testers to
measure the firmness of fruits and vegetables are the Magness-Taylor and UC Fruit Firmness
testers.

Juice content:

The juice content of many fruits increases as the fruit matures on the tree. To measure the juice
content of a fruit, a representative sample of fruit is taken and then the juice extracted in a
standard and specified manner. The juice volume is related to the original mass of juice, which
is proportional to its maturity.

Table 2.2 Minimum juice values for mature citrus.

Citrus fruit Minimum juice content (%)

Naval 30
oranges
Other oranges 35
Grapefruit 35
Lemons 25
Mandarins 33
Clementines 40

Oil content and dry matter percentage:

Oil content can be used to determine the maturity of fruits, such as avocados. According to the
Agricultural Code in California, avocados at the time of harvest and at any time thereafter, shall
not contain in weight less than 8% oil per avocado, excluding skin and seed (Mexican or
Guatemalan race cultivars). Thus, the oil content of an avocado is related to moisture content.
The oil content is determined by weighing 5-10 g of avocado pulp and then extracting the oil
with a solvent (e.g., benzene or petroleum ether) in a destillation column. This method has been
successful for cultivars naturally high in oil content (Nagy and Shaw, 1980).

Moisture content
Mr. Clarence M. Catambing FA 101-Postharvest Handling and Seed
4
Technology
During the development of avocado fruit, the oil content increases and moisture content rapidly
decreases (Olaeta-Coscorroza and Undurraga-Martinez, 1995). The moisture levels required to
obtain good acceptability of a variety of avocados cultivated.

Sugars:

In climacteric fruits, carbohydrates accumulate during maturation in the form of starch. As the
fruit ripens, starch is broken down into sugar. In non-climacteric fruits, sugar tends to
accumulate during maturation. A quick method to measure the amount of sugar present in fruits
is with a brix hydrometer or a refractometer. A drop of fruit juice is placed in the sample holder
of the refractometer and a reading taken; this is equivalent to the total amount of soluble solids
or sugar content. This factor is used in many parts of the world to specify maturity. The soluble
solids content of fruit is also determined by shining light on the fruit or vegetable and
measuring the amount transmitted.

Starch content:

Measurement of starch content is a reliable technique used to determine maturity in pear

cultivars. The method involves cutting the fruit in two and dipping the cut pieces into a solution
containing 4% potassium iodide and 1% iodine. The cut surfaces stain to a blue-black color in
places where starch is present. Starch converts into sugar as harvest time approaches. Harvest
begins when the samples show that 65-70% of the cut surfaces have turned blue-black.

Acidity:

In many fruits, the acidity changes during maturation and ripening, and in the case of citrus and
other fruits, acidity reduces progressively as the fruit matures on the tree.

Taking samples of such fruits, and extracting the juice and titrating it against a standard alkaline
solution, gives a measure that can be related to optimum times of harvest. Normally, acidity is
not taken as a measurement of fruit maturity by itself but in relation to soluble solids, giving
what is termed the brix: acid ratio. Sanchez et al. (1996) studied the effect of inducing maturity
in banana (Musa sp (L.), AAB) “Silk” fruits with 2-chloroethyl phosphoric acid (“ethephon”), in
some trials in Venezuela. Four treatments (0, 1000, 3000, and 5000 ppm) were applied. The
results obtained revealed that the “ethephon” treatments increased the acidity and total soluble
solids. The sucrose formation accelerated while the pH was not affected significantly.

Specific gravity:

Specific gravity is the relative gravity, or weight of solids or liquids, compared to pure distilled
water at 62°F (16.7°C), which is considered unity. Specific gravity is obtained by comparing
the weights of equal bulks of other bodies with the weight of water. In practice, the fruit or
vegetable is weighed in air, then in pure water. The weight in air divided by the weight in water
gives the specific gravity. This will ensure a reliable measure of fruit maturity. As a fruit
matures its specific gravity increases. This parameter is rarely used in practice to determine
time of harvest, but could be used in cases where development of a suitable sampling technique
is possible. It is used however to grade crops according to different maturities at post-harvest.

Mr. Clarence M. Catambing FA 101-Postharvest Handling and Seed

4
Technology
This is done by placing the fruit in a tank of water, wherein those that float is less mature than
those that sink.

Mr. Clarence M. Catambing FA 101-Postharvest Handling and Seed

4
Technology
 MODULE III
BIOLOGICAL ASPECT OF POST-
HARVEST HANDLING

Lesson 1 General Characteristics of Fruit

Flowers and Cut flowers

Lesson 2 Product Deterioration

Mr. Clarence M. Catambing FA 101-Postharvest Handling and Seed

4
Technology
 MODULE III

BIOLOGICAL ASPECT OF POST-HARVEST HANDLING

 INTRODUCTION

This module discusses the biological aspect for post-development of harvest

technology.

GENERAL OBJECTIVES

After studying this module, you should be able to:

1. Explain the general characteristics of fruit flowers and cut flowers
7. Explain the product deterioration

 DIRECTIONS/ MODULE ORGANIZER

There are two lessons in this module. Read each lesson carefully and asses yourself how
much you have benefited from it. Answer the quick assessment and submit your output to
your subject instructor.

In case you encounter difficulty in understanding your lesson, discuss this with your
subject instructor.

Happy reading and learning!

Mr. Clarence M. Catambing FA 101-Postharvest Handling and Seed

4
Technology
 LESSON I: GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF FRUIT
FLOWERS AND CUT FLOWERS

INTRODUCTION
The most significant patterns, in terms of evolutionary relationships, involve
reproductive structures, such as the number and arrangement of flower parts, or the structure of
cones. While the size and shape of vegetative structures such as leaves and stems are relatively
plastic or changeable, the basic patterns of reproductive structures change little over time.
Although access to flowers and fruit may be seasonal, digital resources and herbarium samples
allow the identification of patterns and relationships within plant taxa.

OVERVIEW OF THE LESSON

At the end of this lesson, you are expected to:

1. Explain the general characteristics of fruit flowers and cut flowers.

FLOWER AND INFLORESCENCE MORPHOLOGY

Flower shape, color, and markings are all valuable features for plant identification.

Flower corolla shapes.

A typical angiosperm flower is borne on a peduncle (stalk) and is composed of the receptacle,
sepals (calyx), petals (corolla), stamens, and pistil (carpel). Flower parts may be fused or
separate and usually exhibit radial (star-shaped) symmetry or bilateral (two-mirror image
halves) symmetry.

Mr. Clarence M. Catambing FA 101-Postharvest Handling and Seed

4
Technology
 Flow
er parts and symmetry.

In addition to their shape, flowers are often differentiated by further dissections of their
structure. For example, complete flowers must have all four main flower parts: sepals, petals,
stamens (male) and pistils (female), while incomplete flowers will be missing one or more of
these parts. Most flowering plants have perfect flowers that contain both male and female
reproductive parts. However, some have imperfect flowers that contain only the male or female
part (stamen or pistil) and may or may not contain sepals or petals. A species may have
individual plants that are dioecious, producing either male or female flowers or cones on
separate plants. Plants that are monoecious produce both female and male flowers and cones on
one plant.

Angiosperms produce flowers which are arranged on a structure called an inflorescence. An

inflorescence may support a solitary flower or display individual flowers (florets) to pollinators
or expose flower parts to pollen carried on air currents.

Inflorescence types.

Fruit Morphology

For the majority of angiosperms, when a flower is pollinated, the pollen joins with an egg to
produce a seed. The seed develops within the ovary which is part of the pistil, a female
reproductive organ of the flower. The expanded and ripened ovary is referred to as the fruit.
Commonly, the enlarged ovary becomes the edible portion of the fruit.

Simple fruits, which form from a single, ripened ovary, may be either fleshy or dry. Fleshy
fruits include the berry (grape), pepo (pumpkin), hesperidium (orange), drupe (plum), and pome
(apple). Aggregate fruit develop from a single flower with numerous pistils. Once fertilized, the
individual pistils develop into tiny fruitlets clustered on a single receptacle, as in a raspberry or

Mr. Clarence M. Catambing FA 101-Postharvest Handling and Seed

4
Technology
blackberry. Multiple fruits, such as pineapples, form when numerous fertilized flowers in a
single inflorescence develop together into a larger fruit.

Dry fruits, are either dehiscent (split open at maturity) or indehiscent (remain closed at
maturity). Dry fruits that split at maturity include the legume (pea), silique (mustard), follicle
(milkweed), and capsule (cotton). Dry fruits that do not split at maturity include the achene
(sunflower), nut (pecan, almond), grain (corn), samara (ash), and schizocarp (geranium, carrot).

Fruit morphology chart.

In addition to an important feature for identification purposes, many fruit types have decorative
value and may provide long season interest in the landscape.

For the majority of gymnosperms, the cone is the reproductive structure. Most familiar is the
female cone, which is constructed of many small, rounded, scale-like structures attached to a
central stem. The pollen bearing male cone is characteristically smaller than the female cone.
Typically, a naked seed will develop on each of the scales of a female cone.

Flower structure vegetables. Immature flower heads (cauliflowers, broccoli) can be cut with a
sharp knife and trimmed in the field. Mature flowers (squash, chayote, pumpkins) are plucked
individually by hand or shoot bearing flowers are harvested as a vegetable.
Plucking methods vary according to the kind of produce being harvested:

Mr. Clarence M. Catambing FA 101-Postharvest Handling and Seed

4
Technology
• Ripe fruits with a natural break – point, which leave the stalk attached to the fruit are best
removed by a “lift, twist and pull” series of movements, e.g., tomato and passion fruit.
• Mature green or ripe fruits with woody stalks which break at the junction of the fruit and the
stalk are best clipped from the tree, leaving up to a centimeter of fruit stalk attached. If the stem
is broken off at the fruit itself, diseases may enter the stem scar and give rise to stem end rot,
e .g. mango, citrus, avocado;
• Immature fruits with fleshy stem can be cut with a sharp and clean knife, e. g. zucchini, okra,
papaya, capsicum; these can also be harvested by breaking the stem by hand, with the risk of
damaging the plant or the fruit and the rough cut will make the produce and the plant more
susceptible of decay.

Harvesting

 Harvest in the morning or evening.

 Remove foliage on stems that will be below water.
 Slant cuts will keep stems from lying flat on the bucket bottom and increase water uptake.
 Never lay flowers on the ground or dirty surface.
 Disinfect cutting tools frequently, or at least 2 times each day.
 Grade and bunch flowers immediately after harvest.
 Bring flowers into the shade and place in clean buckets of clean warm water (acidified) and a
biocide.
 Avoid over-filing containers with flowers

After Harvest Care

 Move flowers to a cool area.

 Recut stems under water.
 Place flower in solutions depending on the need of the flowers.

General guidelines for harvesting:

 Spike type flowers: Harvest when one-fourth to one-half of the individual florets are
open.
 Daisy type flowers: Harvest when fully open.

Mr. Clarence M. Catambing FA 101-Postharvest Handling and Seed

4
Technology
 LESSON II: PRODUCT DETERIORATION

INTRODUCTION

Reduction of post-harvest losses and quality deterioration are essential in increasing

food availability from the existing production. Minimizing this loss has a great significance for
food security, economic growth and welfare of the society.

OVERVIEW OF THE LESSON

At the end of this lesson, you are expected to:

1. Explain the concept of product deterioration

Deterioration is defined as decay, evaporation, obsolescence, loss of utility or marginal value

of the commodity that results into the reduction of usefulness from the original condition.
POST-HARVEST DAMAGE TO FRESH PRODUCE

Physical damage to fresh produce can come from a variety of causes, the most common being:

Mechanical injury. The high moisture content and soft texture of fruit, vegetables and root
crops make them susceptible to mechanical injury, which can occur at any stage from
production to retail marketing because of:

 poor harvesting practices;

 unsuitable field or marketing containers and crates, which may have splintered wood,
sharp edges, poor nailing or stapling;
 overpacking or underpacking of field or marketing containers;
 careless handling, such as dropping or throwing or walking on produce and packed
containers during the process of grading, transport or marketing.

Injuries caused can take many forms:

 splitting of fruits or roots and tubers from the impact when they are dropped;
 internal bruising, not visible externally, caused by impact;
 superficial grazing or scratches affecting the skins and outer layer of cells;
 crushing of leafy vegetables and other soft produce.
Mr. Clarence M. Catambing FA 101-Postharvest Handling and Seed
5
Technology
Injuries cutting through or scraping away the outer skin of produce will:

 provide entry points for molds and bacteria causing decay;

 increase water loss from the damaged area;
 cause an increase in respiration rate and thus heat production.

Bruising injuries, which leave the skin intact and may not be visible externally cause:

 increased respiration rate and heat production;

 internal discoloration because of damaged tissues;
 off-flavors because of abnormal physiological reactions in damaged parts.

Injuries from temperature effects. All fresh produce is subject to damage when exposed to
extremes of temperature. Commodities vary considerably in their temperature tolerance. Their
levels of tolerance to low temperatures are of great importance where cool storage is concerned:

 Freezing injury-all produce is subject to freezing at temperatures between 0 and -2

degrees Celsius. Frozen produce has a water-soaked or glassy appearance. Although a
few commodities are tolerant of slight freezing, it is advisable to avoid such
temperatures because subsequent storage life is short. Produce which has recovered
from freezing is highly susceptible to decay.
 Chilling injury- some types of fresh produce are susceptible to injury at low but non-
freezing temperatures. Such crops are mostly of tropical or subtropical origin, but a few
temperate crops may be affected (Table 2).

Effect of chilling injury Symptom

Discoloration Internal or external or both, usually brown or black
Skin piking Sunken spots, especially under dry conditions
Abnormal ripening (fruits) Ripening is uneven or fails; off-flavours
Increase in decay Activity of micro-organisms

TABLE 2. Susceptibility of fruits and vegetables to chilling injury at low but non-freezing
temperatures

Commodit Approximate Chilling injury symtoms

y lowest safe
temperature
°C
Aubergines 7 Surface scald, Alternaria rot
Avocados 5-13 Grey discoloration of flesh
Bananas 12-14 Dull, gray-brown skin color
(green/ripe)
Beans 7 Pitting, russeting
(green)
Cucumbers 7 Pitting water-soaked spots, decay
Grapefruit 10 Brown scald, piking, watery breakdown
Lemons 13-15 Pitting, membrane stain, red blotch

Mr. Clarence M. Catambing FA 101-Postharvest Handling and Seed

5
Technology
Limes 7-10 Pitting
Mangoes 10-13 Grey skin scald, uneven ripening
Melons: 7-10 Pitting failure to ripen, decay
Honeydew
Watermelon 5 Pitting, biker flavor
Okra 7 Discoloration, water-soaked areas, piking
Oranges 7 Pitting brown stain, watery breakdown
Papaya 7 Pitting failure to ripen, off-flavor, decay
Pineapples 7-10 Dull green color, poor flavor
Potatoes 4 Internal discoloration, sweetening
Pumpkins 10 Decay
Sweet 7 Pitting Alternaria rot
peppers
Sweet 13 Internal discoloration, piking, decay
potato
Tomatoes: 13 Water-soaked softening, decay
Mature
green
Ripe 7-10 Poor color, abnormal ripening, Alternaria rot

Source Lutz, J.M. and Hardenburg, R.E., 1966, The commercial storage of fruits, vegetables
and florist and nursery storks, Agricultural Handbook No. 66, USDA, Washington

Sensitivity varies with the commodity, but with each there is a temperature below which injury
occurs: the lowest safe temperature (LST). Within a single commodity type, the LST may vary
between varieties (Table 2). Fruit is generally less sensitive when ripe.

Symptoms of chilling injury may not develop until the produce is removed from cold storage to
normal market (i.e., ambient) temperatures. When susceptible produce has to be held for some
time in storage, it must be kept at a temperature just above its LST. This means that such crops
will have a shorter marketing life than non-sensitive crops because respiration has continued at
a relatively fast rate during storage at higher than normal cold-storage temperatures.

 High temperature injury - if fresh produce is exposed to high temperatures caused by

solar radiation, it will deteriorate rapidly. Produce left in the sun after harvest may reach
temperatures as high as 50 degrees Celsius. It will achieve a high rate of respiration and,
if packed and transported without cooling or adequate ventilation, will become
unusable. Long exposure to tropical sun will cause severe water loss from thin-skinned
root crops such as carrots and turnips and from leafy vegetables.

Diseases and pests. Diseases caused by fungi and bacteria commonly result in losses of fresh
produce. Virus diseases, which can cause severe losses in growing crops, are not a serious post-
harvest problem.

Insect pests that are mainly responsible for wastage in cereals and grain legumes are rarely a
cause of post-harvest loss in fresh produce. Where they do appear, they are often locally
serious, e.g., the potato tuber moth.

Mr. Clarence M. Catambing FA 101-Postharvest Handling and Seed

5
Technology
Diseases. Losses from post-harvest disease in fresh produce fall into two main categories.

Loss in quantity, the more serious, occurs where deep penetration of decay makes the infected
produce unusable. This is often the result of infection of the produce in the field before harvest.

Loss in quality occurs when the disease affects only the surface of produce. It may cause skin
blemishes that can lower the value of a commercial crop. In crops grown for local consumption,
the result is less serious since the affected skin can often be removed and the undamaged
interior can be used.

Fungal and bacterial diseases are spread for the most part by microscopic spores, which are
widely distributed in the air and soil and on dead and decaying plant material. Produce can
become infected:

 through injuries caused by careless handling, by insect or other animal damage, or

through growth cracks;
 through natural pores in the above- and below-ground parts of plants, which allow the
movement of air, carbon dioxide and water vapor into and out of the plant;
 by direct penetration of the intact skin of the plant. The time of infection varies with the
crop and with different diseases. It can occur in the field before harvest or at any time
afterwards.

Field infections before harvest may not become visible until after harvest. For example, decay
of root crops caused by soil molds will develop during storage. Similarly, tropical fruits
infected at any time during their development may show decay only during ripening.

Infection after harvest can occur at any time between the field and the final consumer. It is for
the most part the result of invasion of harvesting or handling injuries by molds or bacteria.

Post-harvest diseases may be spread in the field before harvest by the use of infected seed or
other planting material. Many diseases can survive by using weed plants or other crops as
alternate or alternative hosts. They are also spread by means of infected soil carried on farm
implements, vehicles, boots, etc. and from crop residues or rejected produce left decaying in the
field.

Post-harvest diseases can also be spread by:

 field boxes contaminated by soil or decaying produce or both;

 contaminated water used to wash produce before packing;
 decaying rejected produce left lying around packing houses;
 contaminating healthy produce in packages.

Pests. Although relatively few post-harvest losses of fresh produce are caused by attacks of
insects or other animals, localized attacks by these pests may be serious.

 Insect damage is usually caused by insect larvae burrowing through produce, e.g. fruit
fly, sweet potato weevil, potato tuber moth. Infestation usually occurs before harvest.

Mr. Clarence M. Catambing FA 101-Postharvest Handling and Seed

5
Technology
 Post-harvest spread is a problem where produce is held in store or is exposed to lengthy
periods of transport.
 Rats, mice and other animal pests again are sometimes a problem when produce is
stored on the farm.

LOSS ASSESSMENT

There are no generally accepted methods for evaluating post-harvest losses of fresh produce.
Whatever evaluation method may be used, the result can refer only to the described situation.

In the appraisal of an existing marketing operation, the accurate evaluation of losses occurring
is a problem. It may be suspected that losses are too great, but there may be no figures to
support this view because:

 records do not exist;

 records if available do not cover a long enough period of time;
 the figures available are only estimates made by several observers;
 records may not truly represent a continuing situation; for example, losses may have
been calculated only when unusually high or low;
 loss figures may be deliberately over- or understated for commercial or other reasons in
order to gain benefits or to avoid embarrassment.

Consequently, if accurate records of losses at various stages of the marketing operation have not
been kept over a period of time, a reliable assessment of the potential cost-effectiveness of ways
to improve handling methods is virtually impossible, and the marketing position of the grower
is difficult to strengthen. It is evident that the grower who wants to reduce his post-harvest
losses must maintain reliable records.

Mr. Clarence M. Catambing FA 101-Postharvest Handling and Seed

5
Technology