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Structural System of
Tall Buildings
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Outline
• Definition
• Demand for High Rise Buildings
• Development of Structural System
• Tall Building Trends
• Structural Concerns
• Structural Forms for Tall Buildings
• Classification of Tall Building Structural Systems
• Structural Forms
• Design Consideration
• Conclusion
3
Definition
• Buildings higher than 50m is termed as Tall
Building.
• Buildings higher than 100m is termed as
Skyscraper.
• Buildings 300m or higher is termed as super tall.
• Buildings 600m or taller is termed as mega-tall.
4
Demand for High-rise Buildings
High rise buildings are becoming more prominent
these days due to following reasons
• Scarcity (Shortness) of land
• increasing demand for business and residential
space
• economic growth
• technological advancement
• innovations in structural systems
• desire for aesthetics in urban settings
• cultural significance and prestige
• human aspiration to build higher
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Demand for High-rise Buildings
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Development of Structural Systems
First Generation1780-1850
The exterior walls of these buildings
consisted of
• stone or brick, although sometimes
cast iron was added for decorative
purposes.
• The columns were constructed of
cast iron, often unprotected; steel
and wrought iron was used for the
beams; and the floors were made of
wood.
Home Insurance
Building
7
Development of Structural Systems
Second Generation 1850-1940
The second generation of tall buildings,
which includes the
• Metropolitan Life Building (1909),
• The Woolworth Building (1913), and
• the Empire State Building (1931), are
frame structures, in which a skeleton of
welded- or riveted-steel columns and
beams, often encased in concrete, runs
through the entire building.
• This type of construction makes for an
extremely strong structure, but not
such attractive floor space. The
interiors are full of heavy, load-bearing
columns and walls.
Empire State Building
8
Development of Structural Systems
Third Generation 1940-present
Buildings constructed from after World
War II until today make up the most
recent generation of high-rise buildings.
• Within this generation there are those
of steel-framed construction( core
construction and tube construction ),
reinforced concrete construction(shear
wall), and steel-framed reinforced
concrete construction .
• Hybrid systems also evolved during
this time. These systems make use
more than one type of structural
system in a building.
Burj Khalifa
9
Tall Building Trends
• A composite tall building
utilizes a combination of both
steel and concrete acting
compositely in the main
structural elements.
• A mixed—structure tall
building is any building that
utilizes distinct steel or
concrete systems above or
below each other.
Tall Building Trends in
2013
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Tall Building Trends
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Top 10 Tall Buildings in World
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Burj Khalifa
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Taipei 101
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Shanghai World Financial Center
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International Commerce Center
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Petronas Towers
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Nanjing Greenland Financial Centre
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Willis Tower
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Guangzhou West Tower
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Trump International Hotel & Tower
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Structural Concerns
• The primary structural skeleton of a
tall building can be visualized as a
vertical cantilever beam with its base
fixed in the ground. The structure has
to carry the vertical gravity loads and
the lateral wind and earthquake
loads.
• Gravity loads are caused by dead and
live loads. Lateral loads tend to snap
the building or topple it. The building
must therefore have adequate shear
and bending resistance and must not
lose its vertical load-carrying
capability.
Structural Loads
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Structural Concerns
• The skyscraper pushes down on into
the ground but when the wind blows
the columns in the windy side stretch
apart, and the columns on the other
side squeeze together.
Wind Load Impact
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Structural Concerns
Fighting gravity
• The weight of the building is
supported by a group of vertical
columns
• Each floor is supported by horizontal
steel girders running between vertical
columns.
• Curtain wall made of steel and
concrete attaches to the outside
Framing Skeleton
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Structural Concerns
Wind resistance
• Buildings taller than 10 storeys would generally require additional steel
for lateral system.
• The most basic method for controlling horizontal sway is to simply
tighten up the structure. At the point where the horizontal girders attach
to the vertical column, the construction crew bolt: and welds them on
the top and bottom. as well as the side. This makes the entire steel super
structure move more as one unit, like a pole, as opposed to a flexible
skeleton.
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Structural Concerns
• For taller skyscrapers, tighter
connections don't really do the trick To
keep these buildings from swaying
heavily. engineers have to construct
especially strong cores through the
center of the building.
• The effects of wind can also be
minimized by aerodynamic shaping of
the building. Wind tunnel testing
considers appropriate loading for
as the building becomes taller
overall lateral system design and
and the building’s sway due to
cladding design, and predicts motion lateral forces becomes critical,
perception and pedestrian level effects. there is a greater demand on the
• Use of damping systems girders and columns that make
up the rigid-frame system to
carry lateral forces.
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Structural Forms for Tall Buildings
Ideally, a structural engineer should choose the most efficient structural
elements to resist gravity and lateral (wind and seismic) loadings.
However, ideal design conditions are rarely present.
The structural engineer must accommodate the following restrictions to
the most efficient design:
1. the architect’s internal planning of space,
2. the materials selected,
3. the methods of construction common to the area,
4. the architect’s choice of external cladding and decorations,
5. the restrictions of the site,
6. the locations of MEP (HVAC, electrical and plumbing) systems,
7. the magnitude of the expected horizontal loads, and the proportions
and height determined by owner and architectural preferences.
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Classification of Tall Building
Structural Systems
Can be classified based on the structural material used such as concrete or
steel Structural systems of tall buildings can also be divided into two broad
categories:
1. INTERIOR STRUCTURES
2. EXTERIOR STRUCURES
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Classification of Tall Building
Structural Systems
INTERIOR STRUCTURES
➢ By clustering steel columns and
beams in the core, engineers create a
stiff backbone that can resist
tremendous wind forces. The inner
core is used as an elevator shaft , and
the design allows lots of open space
on each floor
Interior Structures
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Classification of Tall Building
Structural Systems
EXTERIOR STRUCTURES
➢ In newer skyscrapers, like the Sears
Tower in Chicago, engineers moved
the columns and beams from the core
to the perimeter, creating a hollow,
rigid tube as strong as the core
design, but weighing much, much
less.
Exterior Structures
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Structural Forms
Following are the structural forms,
1. Rigid frames
2. Braced frames
3. In-filled frames
4. Shear walls
5. Wall frame
6. Framed tube
7. Bundled-tube
8. Outrigger braced
9. Core structures
10. Tube in Tube structures
11. Hybrid structures.
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Evolution of Structural Systems
Evolution of Structural
Systems
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Structural Systems for Tall Buildings
Structural Systems for
Tall Buildings
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1. Rigid Frame
➢ Resist lateral deformation by joint
rotation,
➢ Requires high bending stiffness of
columns and beams,
➢ Rigid joints are essential for
stability,
➢ Not effective for heights over 30
stories.
Rigid Frame
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2. Braced Frame
➢ Lateral forces are resisted by axial
actions of bracing and columns,
➢ Steel bracing members of filled-in
bays
➢ More efficient than a rigid frame.
Braced Frame
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3. In-filled Frame
➢ Common in Europe for buildings up
to 30 stories in height.
➢ In-filled by panels of brickwork,
block-work or cast-in-place concrete.
➢ The infill acts as a strut along the
compression diagonal to brace the
frame.
In-filled Frame
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4. Shear Walls
A type of rigid frame construction.
➢ The shear wall is in steel or concrete to
provide greater lateral rigidity.
➢ It is a wall where the entire material of
the wall is employed in the resistance of
both horizontal and vertical loads.
➢ Is composed of braced panels (or shear
panels) to counter the effects of lateral
load acting on a structure.
➢ Wind & earthquake loads are the most
common among the loads.
➢ For skyscrapers, as the size of the
structure increases, so does the size of
the supporting wall. Shear walls tend to
be used only in conjunction with other
support systems. Shear Walls
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5. Wall-Frame Structures
➢ The combination of shear
walls and rigid frames.
➢ The structure is constrained
to adopt a common deflected
shape to both systems
through the horizontal
rigidity of the girders and
slab.
➢ The walls and frame interact
horizontally, especially at the
top, to produce a stiffer and
stronger structure. The
combination increases the Wall-Frame Structure
economy of height to the 65
story range, well above the
range of rigid frames or
shear walls alone.
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6. Framed-tube Structures
➢ The lateral resistant of the framed-tube structures is provided by very stiff
moment-resistant frames that form a “tube” around the perimeter of the
building.
➢ The basic inefficiency of the frame system for reinforced concrete buildings of
more than 15 stories resulted in member proportions of prohibitive size
and structural material cost premium, and thus such system were
economically not viable.
➢ Gravity loading is shared between the tube and interior column or walls.
➢ When lateral loading acts, the perimeter frame aligned in the direction of
loading acts as the “webs” of the massive tube of the cantilever, and those
normal to the direction of the loading act as the “flanges”.
➢ The tube form was developed originally for building of rectangular.
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6. Framed-tube Structures
➢ The outer tube carries 100% of the lateral
loads, and 75 to 90% of the gravity loads.
The remaining gravity load is carried by the
small cluster of core columns (or shear
walls).
Frame-Tube Structure
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6. Framed-tube Structures
Frame-Tube Structure
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6. Framed-tube Structures
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6. Framed-tube Structures
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7. Bundled-tube Structures
➢ The concept allows for wider column
spacing in the tubular walls than would be
possible with only the exterior frame tube
form.
➢ The spacing which make it possible to place
interior frame lines without seriously
compromising interior space planning.
➢ The ability to modulate the cells vertically
can create a powerful vocabulary for a
variety of dynamic shapes therefore offers
great latitude in architectural planning of at
all building.
Bundled-Tube Structure
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7. Bundled-tube Structures
Bundled-Tube Structure
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8. Outrigger-braced Structures
➢ 1 or 2 story deep truss connects
core to perimeter columns,
➢ Increase the building rigidity,
➢ Dependent of rigid core for shear
resistance.
Outrigger-braced
Structure
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9. Core Structures
➢ Lateral and gravity loads supported
by central core,
➢ Eliminates columns and bracing
elements,
➢ Core is inefficient because it is not
deep in respect to bending,
➢ Moment supported floors are
inefficient.
Outrigger-braced
Structure
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9. Tube in Tube Structures
Lumbago Tatung Haji
Building, Kuala Lumpur
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9. Tube in Tube Structures
➢ This variation of the framed tube consists of an
outer frame tube, the “Hull,” together with an
internal elevator and service core.
➢ The Hull and core act jointly in resisting both
gravity and lateral loading.
➢ The outer framed tube and the inner core
interact horizontally as the shear and flexural
components of a wall-frame structure, with the
benefit of increased lateral stiffness.
➢ The structural tube usually adopts a highly
dominant role because of its much greater
structural depth.
Lumbago Tatung Haji
Building, Kuala Lumpur
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10. Hybrid Structures
➢ The modern trend in architecture, especially
the so called “postmodern” building, is to
create non-regularly shaped buildings.
Hybrid Structures
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Design Considerations
The Basic Design Considerations are;
1. Limit States Design Philosophy
2. Limit State Design Philosphy
3. The Speed of Erection
4. Loading
5. Sequential Loading
6. Strength and Stability
7. Drift Limitations
8. Stiffness
9. Human Comfort
10. Fire
11. Creep, Shrinkage, and Temperature
12. Foundation Settlement and
13. Soil-Structure Interaction
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Design Considerations
There are three major factors to consider in the design of all structures:
➢ Strength
➢ rigidity and
➢ stability
As height increases, the rigidity and stability requirements
become more important, and they are often the dominant factors in the
design. So the size of the members may be increased beyond and above the
strength requirements.
• Change the form of the structure into something more rigid and stable to
confine the deformation and increase stability.
1- The Basic Design Criteria For Tall
Buildings.
➢ The pressure p = f(H^2); in other words, the pressure on a 100-story building is 16x
the pressure on a 25-story building.
2- Limit States Design Philosophy
➢ The aim of this approach is to ensure that all structures and their constituent
components are designed to resist with reasonable safety the worst loads and
deformations that are liable to occur during construction and service, and to have
adequate durability during their lifetime.
➢ The entire structure, or any part of it, is considered as having “failed” when it reaches
any one of various “limit states.” Two types of limit states must be considered:
▪ The ultimate limit states, corresponding to the loads to cause failure, endangering
lives and causing serious financial losses, the probability of failure must be low.
▪ The serviceability limit states, which involve the criteria governing the service life
of the building. Since the consequences are not catastrophic, a much higher
probability of occurrence is permitted.
2- Limit States Design Philosophy
➢ A particular limit state may be reached as a result of an adverse combination of
random conditions. Partial safety factors are employed for different conditions that
reflect the probability of certain occurrences or circumstances of the structure and
loading existing. The implicit objective of the design calculations is then to ensure
that the probability of any particular limit state being reached is maintained below
an acceptable value for the type of structure concerned.
3- The Speed of Erection Process.
➢ The speed of erection is a vital factor in obtaining a return on the investment by
minimizing the cost of interest payments on the large capital costs involved in such
large-scale projects.
➢ Most tall buildings are constructed in congested city sites with difficult access, and
with no storage areas. Careful planning and organization of the construction
sequence become essential.
➢ The story-to-story uniformity of most multi-story buildings encourages construction
through repetitive operations and prefabrication techniques.
➢ The progress in the ability to build tall buildings has gone hand in hand with the
development of more efficient equipment and improved methods of construction,
such as:
▪ Slip- and flying-formwork
▪ Concrete pumping
▪ The use of climbing tower cranes and large mobile cranes.
4. LOADING
➢ The structure must be designed to resist the gravitational and lateral forces, both
permanent and transient that will be sustained during construction and during the
expected useful life of the structure (from 60 to 100 years). These forces will depend
on the size and shape of the building, and its location. Load combinations depend on
the probable accuracy of estimating the dead and live loads, and the probability of
the simultaneous occurrence of different combinations of gravity loading, both dead
and live, with either wind or earthquake forces. The accuracy of these loads is
included in limit states design through the use of prescribed factors.
5. SEQUENTIAL LOADING
➢ For dead loads, the construction sequence should be considered to be the worst case.
It is usual to shore the freshly placed floor upon several previously cast floors. The
construction loads on the supporting floors due to the weight of wet concrete and its
formwork will greatly exceed the loads of normal service conditions. These loads
must be calculated considering the sequence of construction and the rate of erection.
However, the designer rarely knows who the contractor will be, nor his method of
construction.
➢ For dead loads, the construction sequence should be considered to be the worst case.
It is usual to shore the freshly placed floor upon several previously cast floors. The
construction loads on the supporting floors due to the weight of wet concrete and its
formwork will greatly exceed the loads of normal service conditions. These loads
must be calculated considering the sequence of construction and the rate of erection.
However, the designer rarely knows who the contractor will be, nor his method of
construction.
➢ If column axial deformations are calculated as though the dead loads are applied to
the completed structure, bending moments in the horizontal components (for
example, beams) will result from any differential column shortening.
5. SEQUENTIAL LOADING
➢ Because of the cumulative effects of column axial deformations over the height of the
building, the effects are greater in the highest levels of the building. However, the
effects of such differential movements could be greatly overestimated because in
reality, during the construction sequence, a particular horizontal member is
constructed on columns in which the initial axial deformations due to the dead
weight of the structure up to that particular level have already taken place.
➢ The deformations of that particular floor will then be caused by the loads that are
applied subsequent to its construction.
➢ Such sequential effects must be considered if an accurate assessment of the
structural actions due to dead loads is to be achieved.
6- Strength and Stability
➢ The primary requirement of the ultimate limit state design procedure is that the
structure have adequate strength to resist and remain stable under the worst
probable loads during its lifetime. This includes all critical load combinations,
augmented moments from second-order deflections (P-∆) plus an adequate reserve,
study all critical members whose failure may lead to a progressive collapse of part or
the whole structure. Finally, the whole building must be checked against toppling as
a rigid body about one edge of the base. Moments are taken about that edge with the
resisting moment of the dead weight of the structure to be greater than the
overturning moment by an acceptable factor of safety (FS > 3).
6- Strength and Stability
➢ A simple model of a tall building is to represent it as
a cantilevered beam fixed to its foundations. The
lateral deflection of the cantilever due to the wind
force shown at left is the drift at the top floor.
7- Drift Limitations
➢ The parameter that measures the lateral stiffness is the drift index. It is defined as
the ratio of the maximum deflection at the top of the building to the total height of
the building. In addition, each floor has an index called the inter-story drift index
which checks for localized excessive deformation.
➢ There is no national code requirement for the drift index, but 1/400 is a traditionally
accepted limit.
➢ Different countries use from 0.001 to 0.005 (1/1,000 to as low as 1/200).
➢ Lower values are used for hotels and condominiums because the noise and
discomfort at those levels are unacceptable.
➢ For conventional structures, the preferred range is 0.0015 to 0.0030 (in other words,
from 1/700 to 1/350).
7- Drift Limitations
➢ Deflections must be limited, in order to:
1) Prevent second-order P-∆ effects due to gravity loading, precipitating collapse;
2) Allow the functioning of non-structural components, such as elevators and
doors;
3) Avoid distress in the structure;
4) Prevent excessive cracking and consequent loss of stiffness;
5) Avoid any redistribution of load to non-load-bearing partitions, in-fills, cladding,
or glazing;
6) Prevent dynamic motions from causing discomfort to occupants, or affecting
sensitive equipment.
7- Drift Limitations
➢ If excessive, the drift of a structure can be reduced by:
1) Changing the geometric configuration to alter the mode of lateral load resistance;
2) Increasing the bending stiffness of the horizontal members;
3) Adding additional stiffness by the inclusion of stiffer wall or core members;
4) Achieving stiffer connections, by sloping the exterior columns;
5) In extreme circumstances, it may be necessary to add dampers, which may be of
the passive or active type.
8- STIFFNESS
➢ The lateral stiffness is a major consideration in the design of a tall building. Under
the ultimate limit state, the lateral deflections must be limited to prevent 2nd-order
P-∆ effects from gravity loading to be large enough to precipitate a collapse. In
addition, serviceability requires these deflections not to affect elevator rails, doors,
glass partitions, and prevent dynamic motions to cause discomfort to the occupants
and sensitive equipment. This is one of the major differences of tall buildings with
respect to low-rise buildings.
9- Human Comfort
➢ Buildings subjected to both lateral and torsional deflections (plus vortex shedding
and other usual effects) may induce in their human occupants from discomfort to
acute nausea. These are major factors in the final design of the building.
➢ When a tall structure is subjected to lateral loads, the resulting oscillatory
movements can induce a wide range of responses in the building’s occupants,
ranging from mild discomfort to acute nausea. This may prove the structure
undesirable or un-rentable.
➢ There are no codified standards for comfort criteria. A dynamic analysis is required
to determine the response of the structure in order to determine its adequacy to the
comfort criteria.
10- FIRE
➢ One of the most extreme conditions placed upon a building is fire.
➢ Fire is a primary concern during design. The temperature range and its duration
must be estimated from its probable cause and the materials present in the building
that could provide fuel for its continuation. Also of interest are possible sources of
ventilation, and egress from alterative paths must be considered. The behavior of the
different structural components must be known. For example, mild steel at 700°C is
only 15% of the yield strength at 20°C, and its elastic modulus drops to only 45% of
its original value.
11- Creep, Shrinkage, and
Temperature
➢ In very tall buildings, the cumulative vertical movements due to creep and shrinkage
may cause distress in the structure and induce forces into horizontal elements
especially in the upper regions of the building. During the construction phase, elastic
shortening will occur in the vertical elements of the lower levels due to the additional
loads imposed by the upper floors as they are completed. Cumulative differential
movements will affect the stresses in the subsequent structure, especially in the
building that includes both in-situ and pre-cast components. Buildings subjected to
large temperature variations between their external faces and the internal core, and
that are restrained, will experience induced stresses in the members connecting
both.
12- The Effect of Foundation
Settlement Upon the Tall Building.
➢ The gravity and lateral forces on the structure will be transmitted to the earth
through the foundation system. Because of its height, a tall building’s columns may
be very heavy. In areas with bedrock, appropriate foundations can be shallow
foundations, drilled shafts, or deep basements.
➢ In areas with poor soil conditions, differential settlements must be avoided. A typical
solution is the use of mat (or raft) foundation, where the weight of soil equals to a
significant portion of the gross building weight. This method is called “partially
compensated foundation.”
➢ Overturning moments and resisting moments and shears must be checked. Minor
movements of the foundations are greatly exaggerated by a tall building, leading to
very large inclinations of the tower. If an overall rotational settlement of the entire
foundation occurs, the lateral deflections will be magnified by the height, increasing
maximum drift and incurring P-∆ effects.
13. Soil-Structure Interaction.
• Soil-structure interaction involves both static and dynamic behaviour. The former is
generally treated by simplified models of subgrade behaviour, and finite element
methods of analysis are customary.
• When considering dynamic effects, both interactions between soil and structure, and
any amplification caused by a coincidence of the natural frequencies of building and
foundation must be included.
• Seismic forces may develop excessive hydrostatic pressures, causing liquefaction of
the soil. These types of conditions must be considered and avoided.
LOADS
➢ Gravity Loading
▪ Impact Gravity Loading
▪ Construction Loads
➢ Wind Loading
▪ Simple Static Approach
▪ Dynamic Methods
➢ Seismic Loading
▪ Equivalent Lateral Force Procedure
▪ Modal Analysis Procedure
Impact Gravity Loading
➢ Impact loading occurs as a gravity live load in the case of an elevator being
accelerated upward or brought to a rest on its way down.
➢ An increase of 100% of the static elevator load has usually given satisfactory
performance.
Construction Loads
➢ Construction loads are often claimed to be the most severe loads that a building has
to withstand during its life-cycle. More failures occur in buildings under construction
than in those that are complete.
➢ Typically, the construction load that has to be supported is the weight of the floor
forms and a newly placed slab, which in total may equal twice the floor dead load.
Wind Loading
Wind loading affects the design of buildings 10 stories and higher. Structures have
become lighter and more prone to deflect and sway under wind loading.
There are several Code methods:
➢ The first method is a static approach, assuming the building to be a fixed rigid body,
which is appropriate for tall buildings of unexceptional height, slenderness or
susceptibility to vibration in the wind.
➢ Subsequent dynamic methods are needed for exceptional buildings, such as those
described in the Uniform Building Code (UBC) as those of height greater than 400
feet or of height greater than five times their width (H / W > 5).
75
Conclusion
➢ With the present technology and known materials , it is possible to
build more higher and faster.
➢ It is now possible to build skyscrapers so fast using pre-
fabricated units that it can lead to environmental problems, stress
on resources and overcrowding if not controlled.
➢ To build higher the base of the building will have to be made
wider.
➢ The bundled tube system was a great innovation and was able
to span great heights during it's time , to attain the height of burj
khalifa the bundled tube system will need a bigger base when
compared with the core system.
➢ New improved structural systems and new materials in the future can
lead us to even greater heights and more stable buildings. It’s not
technology holding buildings back. It’s money.
76