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Chapter 2

Chapter 2 of the document discusses the storage capacity of reservoir rocks, emphasizing the importance of rock properties such as porosity and fluid distribution in estimating hydrocarbon volumes. It outlines methods for measuring rock properties, including core analysis and well logs, and explains the significance of wettability and capillary pressure in reservoir engineering. Additionally, it covers pore geometry, types of porosity, and the effects of compressibility on reservoir characteristics.

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Chapter 2

Chapter 2 of the document discusses the storage capacity of reservoir rocks, emphasizing the importance of rock properties such as porosity and fluid distribution in estimating hydrocarbon volumes. It outlines methods for measuring rock properties, including core analysis and well logs, and explains the significance of wettability and capillary pressure in reservoir engineering. Additionally, it covers pore geometry, types of porosity, and the effects of compressibility on reservoir characteristics.

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Curtin University of Technology Master of Pavolaum Engineering Department of Petoleum Enginesing Formation Evaluation Chapter 2 — Storage Capacity of Reservoir Rocks Table of Contents 2.4 Introduction 2.2 Measurement of Rock Properties 2.3 Pore Geometry and Porosity.. 2.4 Wettability. 2.4.1. Measurement. 2.4.2 Factors Affecting Reservoir 24.3. Drainage and Imbibition 24.4 Some Definitions... 25 Capillary Pressure 2.5.1. Measurement by Centrifugal Method. 2.5.2. Measurement by Displacement Method .... 2.5.3 Hysteresis. 2.6 _ Fluid Distribution in a Real Reservoir 2.6.1. Oil Migration 2.6.2 Hydrocarbon Seals 2.6.3. Transition Zones..... 27 _ The Leverett J Function 2.7.1 Model Assumptions and Method 2.7.2 Applicabilt «ecco . 28 References. CHAPTER? ‘Storage Capacty of Reservar Rocks [Link] (¢ PETROMAN Curtin University of Technology Master of Pavolaum Engineering Department of Petoleum Enginesing Formation Evaluation CHAPTER? ‘Storage Capacty of Reservar Rocks [Link] Curtin University of Technology Master of Pavolaum Engineering Department of Petoleum Enginesing Formation Evaluation Chapter 2 — Storage Capacity of Reservoir Rocks 2.1. Introduction A thorough knowledge of rock properties is fundamental to the accurate estimation of the volume of hydrocarbons stored within a reservoir. This volume clearly depends on the porosity of the reservoir and the distribution of fluids within the reservoir. The porosity is solely a rock property, and as such is relatively easy to determine, however the distribution of fluids will need to take into account the interactions between the particular rocks and the particular fluids in question. These complex interactions are quantified through the concepts of wettability and capillary pressure. These key parameters also determine the residual hydrocarbon saturation after development, expressed as a recovery factor, and are therefore of central importance to reservoir engineers. 2.2. Measurement of Rock Properties There are essentially three approaches to determining rock properties: (1) direct measurements made on core samples (2) examining well logs (3) analysing transient well test data Core analysis can be neatly subdivided into two areas. The first is referred to as routine core analysis (RCA) and this is primarily concerned with measuring the porosity and permeability distribution of the reservoir. These are exclusively rock properties. The second type of analysis is referred to as special core analysis (SCAL) and this attempts to quantify the precise nature of the rock and fluid interactions referred to above. Specifically it involves wettability and capillary pressure measurements so that static fluid distributions can be estimated. In addition to this it also investigates the possible dynamic fluid flow performance should the reservoir be produced. This involves quantifying the behaviour of the competing fluids in the porous rock through the measurement of their respective relative permeabilities. Core analyses and well log interpretations give property values to regions close to the well. If there is good correlation between values recorded in neighbouring wells then reasonably reliable trends can be set up and values away from the wells may be estimated. Of the two approaches, it is core analysis that tends to give a more comprehensive fine scale description of reservoir properties. In view of this it is usually the case that well log data is calibrated against core data. Well test analysis does give some local information but its main objective is to probe the inner reaches of the reservoir and deliver average rock properties and structural information on the large scale. aR ‘Storage Capacty of Reservar Rocks [Link] Curtin University of Technology Master of Pavolaum Engineering Department of Petoleum Enginesing Formation Evaluation A given study will normally have access to data from a mix of these approaches and in order to gain the fullest understanding of the reservoir it is important to reconcile, as far as possible, all the data from the various sources. It is important not to be too eager to ignore data simply because, on first inspection, it does not seem to “fit’. There needs to be a rational explanation for eliminating data, or at least some recognition that the data appears anomalous and may need to be re-examined when additional information becomes available. The important distinction being made here is that the troublesome data is only being excluded for the time being; it is not being forgotten. More detailed descriptions of all three approaches to the measurement of rock properties are given elsewhere in the course (notably the Formation Evaluation module, the Advanced Reservoir Engineering module and later in this module) 2.3. Pore Geometry and Porosity Pore geometry essentially controls porosity, fluid distribution and permeability, and as such is an essential part of reservoir characterisation. The most important aspects of pore geometry are pore size and shape; pore throat size; pore-to-throat size ratio; the number of pore throats per pore; the amount of correlation between pore and pore throat size; and whether pores of similar sizes are clustered in some degree of order or are randomly distributed These phenomena, and their effect on reservoir quality, are shown schematically in Figure (2.1) Porosity is defined as the pore (void) volume in a rock divided by the bulk volume of the rock, and is represented by the symbol @. However, not all pore space is useful from the point of view of fluid extraction. With reference to Figure (2.2) it can be seen that some pore space may be isolated, and even if happens to be present inside this space it is clearly not available for production. With this in mind it is more useful to talk in terms of total porosity and effective porosity. Total porosity is the fraction of bulk rock volume that is void space, whether the individual pores are interconnected or not. Effective porosity is a measure of the connected void space. It is the volume remaining when the volume of the isolated porosity is subtracted from the total porosity. Clearly it is this quantity that is important in reservoir engineering. In an idealised system of equally sized touching spheres the porosity can vary from 48%, when the spheres are arranged in a simply packed structure, to 26%, when the spheres are packed in a face-centred-cubic structure. These values can be determined from simple geometric considerations. Porosity in sands and sandstones varies primarily with grain size distribution and grain shapes, packing arrangement, cementation, and // or clay content aR ‘Storage Capacty of Reservar Rocks [Link] [6 PETROMAN Curtin University of Technology Master of Pavolaum Engineering Department of Petoleum Enginesing Formation Evaluation The porosity of productive sands and sandstones is generally between 10 and 40%. Increasing Reservoir Quality Pore Size @— Throat Size =@==@= Pore / Throat =@==6@= Size Ratio No. of Throats per Pore Spatial Ordering (Connectivity) Figure (2.1) Pore Geometry and Reservoir Quality With regard to the connected porosity there are several categorisations that may be made. For example (broadly speaking) there are three classifications, based on pore size, which reflect the behaviour of fluids within the rock. At the micro scale (< um diameter) molecular forces between the fluid and rock are significant. These tiniest void spaces give rise to what is referred to as microporosity and this is commonly associated with clay minerals, especially authigenic clay minerals. Although they may be connected, they do not contribute to the effective porosity since strong capillary forces essentially lock in any fluid within them. In the largest void spaces the motion of the fluid is only partially determined by the walls of the void. These spaces are referred to as caverns. Those spaces that are intermediate between the micro scale and caverns are termed pores and they will typically have dimensions of 10m CHER Storage Capacty of Reservoir Rocks [Link] Curtin University of Technology Master of Pavolaum Engineering Department of Petoleum Enginesing Formation Evaluation diameter. This type of intergranular porosity, arising from the space between framework grains, is often termed primary porosity. A similar scale of porosity exists for crystalline materials. BOO Ve Interconnected or ‘effective porosity S_ Isolated, or non- ‘fective porosity Figure (2.2) Effective and Non-effective Porosity Sub-categories of porosity exist. For instance, in limestone and dolomite rocks, cavities are present which tend to be somewhat smaller than caverns but are, nevertheless, large. These sources of porosity, which are unrelated to the rock fabric, are referred to as vugs. In contrast to this, large pores can be present which are directly related to the rock fabric. These arise when framework grains and / or cements are partially or completely dissolved and are referred to as dissolution or moldic porosity. Another cause of large porosity is fractures arising from stress fields acting on the rock, causing it to break and separate. It must be appreciated that the contribution such large porosity makes to the overall effective porosity will depend on the fracture density. It is often the case that the net effect is very small. Figure (2.3) attempts to highlight the most common pore types. Porosity in carbonate rocks is much more variable in magnitude than it is in sands and sandstones. In some reef-type formations it is very high, in a few cases exceeding 50%. However, in general the porosity of carbonate rocks is lower than it is in typical sands and sandstones. There are various techniques available to measure either total or effective porosity in the laboratory. Since rock is compressible, porosity should be measured under a confining pressure approximately equivalent to the in-situ stresses. On the topic of compressibility it is important to note its role with regard to porosity. When the internal fluid pressure within the pore spaces of a rock Which is subjected to a constant external pressure is reduced, the bulk volume aR Storage Capacty of Reservar Rocks [Link] Curtin University of Technology Master of Pavolaum Engineering Department of Petoleum Enginesing Formation Evalation of the rock decreases while the volume of the solid rock material increases. Both of these volume changes act to reduce the porosity slightly (typically 0.5% for a 1,000 psi pressure change). Compressibility is defined as the change in pore volume that accompanies such a change in reservoir pressure, Dow SS ae, 8Q8 Fa <> SHOCK NSZ Miroperosty Imercystatine Interparticle Porosity "pores" DVO 220 Pe S © oS Q SS oe Se@sSe | Intraparticle Vug Fracture Porosity Porosity Porosity Porosity Figure (2.3) Common Pore Types It is measured in terms of volume (change) per volume (original) per pressure change, and therefore has units of psi ~! lav c a (2.1) where C= compressibility v bulk volume p= reservoir pressure CHAPTER? Page 2s ‘Storage Capacty of Reservar Rocks [Link] Curtin University of Technology Master of Pavolaum Engineering Department of Petoleum Enginesing Formation Evalation The small change in volume that occurs has a greater percentage effect on a low porosity system and so it should be expected that compressibility should decrease with increasing porosity. Experiments confirm this to be the case and a schematic is shown in Figure (2.4) ® x Pore Comprossi Change in Pore Vol / Unit Pore Vol /pst* 5 10 15 2 25 Porosity (%) Figure (2.4) Compressibility vs Porosity This phenomenon is obviously a consideration when reservoir fluids are produced in the absence of any pressure support mechanism (such as water injection). It is generally the case, however, that the resulting compaction is minor and has no real consequence on the reservoir development. However, in some rare cases there has been considerable subsidence of the seabed requiring costly facilities upgrades to maintain production. The fact that porosity is a function of the degree of compaction also plays a part in the original formation of the reservoir. It has been shown through experimentation that compaction is generally a function of the depth of burial. In particular for clays, which exhibit the greatest range of porosity of any natural material, the variation in porosity with depth can be represented approximately by equation (2.2). o=Ge* (2.2) where @ = porosity « a constant z = depth below surface CHAPTER? Page 25 Storage Capacty of Reservar Rocks [Link] Curtin University of Technology Master of Pavolaum Engineering Department of Petoleum Enginesing Formation Evaluation Experiments show that while the porosity of surface clay is between 40 to 50%, the porosity of shale, which is highly compacted clay, at a depth of 6,000 feet is only 5%. 2.4 Wettabi Wettability is a measure of the attraction between the rock surface and the fluids in the reservoir. The wetting fluid is the one most attracted to the rock surface. Wettability is important in reservoir engineering because it is closely related to capillary, which is covered in the next main section. These related phenomena have a controlling factor on how easily the different fluids flows through the porous medium during the period of hydrocarbon migration, This process, which will be discussed later, accounts for how the static distribution of fluids within the reservoir comes about. on o1 « sor ’ Rock feck Water Wet ower Figure (2.5) Water / Oil Contact Angle When two immiscible fluids, such as oil and water, are together in contact with a rock face the situation is as depicted in Figure (2.5). The contact angle, 0, is measured through the water phase. If @is less than 90 degrees the reservoir rock is described as being water-wet. If @ is greater than 90 degrees the reservoir rock is oil-wet. The wettability, as defined by the contact angle @, is a measure of which fluid preferentially adheres to the rock. In the early days of Petroleum Engineering it was assumed that all or at least most petroleum reservoirs were strongly water-wet, with water completely coating the rock surface. This wetting condition was attributed to the saturation history of the reservoirs. Since the rock was completely saturated with water prior to migration of oil into the trap there was no reason to assume that this wetting condition had changed. However, observations by researchers in the 1950s raised questions as to the natural wettability of oil reservoirs, and numerous examples of wettability other than strongly water- wet were identified. In fact it now appears that strongly water-wet reservoirs are not very numerous. Likewise reservoirs which are truly oil-wet are also aR Storage Capacty of Reservar Rocks [Link] Curtin University of Technology Master of Pavolaum Engineering Department of Petoleum Enginesing Formation Evaluation somewhat rare. It is now believed by the recognised authorities on the subject that many if not most reservoirs are in fact in an intermediate wettability state. 2.4.1 Measurement Wettability can be measured in the laboratory using a method proposed by Amott (1959). The degree of water wetness is defined as the ratio of the volume of water spontaneously imbibed into a core to the volume of oil forced out by a water drive plus the volume of oil involved in the imbibition process. The water drive is artificially created in the laboratory with a centrifuge, Similarly, an oil index is defined as the ratio of the volume of oil spontaneously imbibed into a core to the total volume of water collected through the forced displacement by oil and the natural imbibition process. The steps involved are: 1. Flush the core with water to reduce the oil saturation to its residual level 2. Immerse the sample in water and evacuate to remove any gas 3. Immerse the sample in oil and measure the volume of water displaced by oil (V1) 4. Measure the volume of water displaced when the sample is centrifuged under oil (V3) 5. Immerse the sample in water and measure the volume of oil displaced by water (¥.1) 6. Measure the volume of oil displaced when the sample is centrifuged under water (¥,:) The oil index (01) is then an ol (2.3) and the water index (177) is (2.4) Figure (2.6) illustrates these concepts. ‘[Link] index of one indicates that the system is strongly water-wet while an oil index of one indicates a strongly oil-wet system. Obviously the closer the value of the index is to unity the stronger the wetting tendencies. Values between these two extremes or a value near zero for both ratios cover the range of intermediate wettability. eR ‘Storage Capacty of Reservar Rocks [Link] Curtin University of Technology Master of Pavolaum Engineering Department of Petoleum Enginesing Formation Evaluation Pressure < >< 6) Figure (2.6) Wettability indices 2.4.2 Factors Affecting Reservoir Wettability As wettability depends on the properties of both the reservoir oil and the rock, it can be expected to vary among rock types, even within a field containing a single oil type. Additionally, wettability is related to water saturation, with wettability varying from an intermediate state high in the oil column, where water saturation is low, to water-wet near and below the oil-water contact. In the laboratory this often manifests itself in a time dependent wettability, A rock sample that has been thoroughly cleaned and then exposed to crude cil will behave as an oil-wet system. Conversely, the cleaned sample will behave as a water-wet system if exposed to brine. During flooding experiments the wettability of the sample will vary as the relative saturations change. While reservoir wettability is clearly affected by the composition of the reservoir oil, just which components in the oil are most important is not clear. aR ge Storage Capacty of Reservar Rocks [Link] Curtin University of Technology Master of Pavolaum Engineering Department of Petoleum Enginesing Formation Evaluation It is widely agreed that the amount of asphaltene present in a crude oil is important, and it has been found by researchers that while strongly water-wet reservoirs have low asphaltene concentrations, the converse is not true and that some reservoirs with low asphaltene concentrations have intermediate wettability Wettability is also affected by the mineralogy of the rock, and measurements of contact angle on polished sections of different “pure” minerals have been made for different crude oils. Although one must be cautious in drawing general conclusions from such research, an important observation is that reservoirs composed of calcite (carbonates) are more likely to be more oil-wet than those composed of silica (sandstones). The converse is also true, that is sandstones are likely to be more water wet than carbonates. In conclusion, it is generally acknowledged that the following factors play a part in determining reservoir wettability * oil composition rock mineralogy formation water composition and pH reservoir pressure and temperature thickness of connate water layer Unfortunately there are many uncertainties as to their relative importance. 2.4.3 Drainage and Imbibition By definition, imbibition is the dynamic process by which the wetting phase is increasing eg, displacement of oil by water in a water-wet reservoir. Conversely drainage is the process by which the wetting phase saturation is decreasing eg. displacement of oil by water in an oil-wet reservoir. It has been determined experimentally that the contact angle is larger when the wetting phase is advancing over the rock face than when retreating, and this difference is described as the hysteresis of the contact angle. This concept is important when measuring capillary pressure and relative permeability. A hydrocarbon reservoir is initially formed under the drainage process and the imbibition process takes over during production. 2.4.4 Some Definitions For completeness the following summarises the meaning of various terms concerning wettability that may be found in the literature. Wettability Wettability is a measure of the attraction between the rock surface and the fluids in the reservoir. eR rg Storage Capacty of Reservar Rocks [Link] (¢ PETROMAN Curtin University of Technology Master of Pavolaum Engineering Department of Petoleum Enginesing Formation Evaluation Contact Angle If two immiscible fluids are in contact with a bounding solid surface then the fluid-fuid interface intersects the solid surface at an angle termed the contact angle. Water-Wet A rock is defined as water-wet if its entire rock surface, including both large and small pores, is coated with water. Oil or gas is contained in the centres of the pores and does not cover any surface of the rock. As noted earlier most reservoirs were probably strongly water-wet prior to migration of oil into the trap. Oil-Wet This is the opposite of water-wet. In this situation the oil completely coats the rock surface while the water resides in the centres of the pores. Oil-wet reservoirs characteristically have low initial water saturations and very high resistivity readings from logs. While examples of oil-wet reservoirs do exist, for example in the Middle East, they are quite rare. Intermediate Wettability This term applies to the wettability state in which there is some tendency for both oil and water to wet the rock surface, The precise nature of the wetting is not defined and the term intermediate wettability includes both fractional and mixed wettability, which are discussed below. An intermediate wet rock will spontaneously absorb both oil and water. Neutral wettability is a special category of intermediate wettability in which there is an equal tendency for oil and water to wet the rock surface i.e, @= 90°. Fractional Wettability In this wettability state some of the pores are oil-wet and others are water-wet This is sometimes referred to as spotted or Dalmatian wettability. This wettability can be artificially created in the laboratory but there is a lack of evidence of its existence in the field. Mixed Wettability Mixed wettability is the term used to describe the condition in which oil preferentially wets interconnected larger pores, thereby allowing oil to remain continuous phase down to very low oil saturations, imbibition Imbibition refers to a dynamic process by which the wetting phase increases. The displacement of oil by water in a water-wet reservoir is an example of an imbibition process. Drainage Drainage is the opposite of imbibition and refers to a process by which the wetting phase saturation decreases. The displacement of water by oil in a water-wet reservoir is an example of a drainage process, eR ag Storage Capacty of Reservar Rocks [Link] (¢ PETROMAN Curtin University of Technology Master of Pavolaum Engineering Department of Petoleum Enginesing Formation Evaluation Hysteresis It has been determined experimentally that the contact angle is larger when the wetting phase is advancing over the rock face than when retreating, and this difference is described as the hysteresis of the contact angle. This concept is important when measuring capillary pressure (see section 2.5, Figure (2.14)) and relative permeability. 2.5 Capillary Pressure Closely related to the concept of wettability is the phenomenon of capillary pressure. Capillary pressure is the force that causes a fluid to rise up a fine tube when one end of the tube is immersed in a wetting fluid. Evaluating the capillary pressure of reservoir rocks is important because, as stated previously, capillarity controls the static distribution of fluids in the reservoir prior to production and the distribution of the remaining hydrocarbons after primary production. Consider a capillary tube immersed in a water-gas system, as shown in Figure (2.7). The capillary force is shown acting along the surface of the water, which forms the contact angle, @., with the wall of the tube. The force is proportional to the energy required to maintain the interface between the water and oil. This is called interfacial tension, o', for a liquid-liquid interface, or surface tension for a liquid-gas interface, and has the units of force per unit length. or F ir @ \ A Water Figure (2.7) Capillary Pressure RR a ‘Storage Capacty of Reservar Rocks [Link] Curtin University of Technology Master of Pavolaum Engineering Department of Petoleum Enginesing Formation Evaluation The length over which this force is applied in a capillary tube is the circumference of a circle of radius r. Thus the total capillary force is 2mo and the vertical component of the force is 2aracos®. When this is expressed as a pressure, by dividing the total force by the cross-sectional area, m*, the following expression for the capillary pressure, P., is obtained _ 20030 r P. (2.5) This expression for the pressure difference across the surface of contact of two immiscible fluids in a spherical capillary is a special form of Laplaces's ‘equation, equation (2.6), which considers a more general geometry. (2.6) In this equation r. and 722 refer to the principal radii of curvature of the interface and cis sometimes referred to as the specific free energy of the interface, more commonly the surface tension. For the case of a capillary tube, ra and rz are equal, and by simple geometrical considerations they are related to the radius of the capillary as follows © cos(@) (2.7) Substituting this relationship into equation (2.6) leads to equation (2.5). Equation (2.5) states that for a given wetting and non-wetting phase the capillary pressure will depend inversely on the capillary radius. This is shown in Figure (2.8) where the narrower the tube the higher the rise of the wetting phase. ‘As may be supposed from Figure (2.8), capillary pressure can also be calculated from the height, h, the fluid rises above the free water level. The pressure equivalent of the unbalanced column of fluid is equal to the capillary pressure. Based on the knowledge that the pressure gradient for a column of pure water (density 62.43 Ibs/ft*) is 0.434 psi/ft and that the pressure gradient for a column of fluid of specific gravity, 7 is 0.4347, it follows that P=0.434(Ay)h (28) where Ayis the difference in specific gravities between the wetting and non- wetting phases, The situation is as depicted in Figure (2.9) where the wetting phase is taken to be water and the non-wetting phase to be oil Rg Storage Capacty of Reservar Rocks [Link] PETROMAN Curtin University of Technology Master of Pavolaum Engineering Department of Petoleum Enginesing Formation Evaluation Non-notting Phase Free Surface ‘Weting Phase Free Surtace in a Series of Tubes Figure (2.8) Capillary Rit Non-wetting Phase Pressure P. bent] Paw height P, . Free hoe Free Suracs Surface P= Pr Wetting Phase Figure (2.9) Capillary Pressure and Sub-surface Fluid Pressure Gradients aR ag Storage Capacty of Reservar Rocks [Link] Curtin University of Technology Master of Pavolaum Engineering Department of Petoleum Enginesing Formation Evaluation The term Ayin equation (2.6) is the difference in the specific gravities of the two fluids (water and air for the situation depicted in Figure (2.7); water and oil for a reservoir). If equation (2.5) is equated to equation (2.8) then 4.6 ocosd (ay) (2.9) Hence, the height of the capillary rise is proportional to the interfacial tension and the cosine of the wetting angle, and inversely proportional to the radius of the capillary and the difference in the specific gravities of the wetting and non- wetting phase, 2.5.1 Measurement by Centrifugal Method In the centrifugal method a sample that has been saturated with the wetting fluid is placed in a container of the non-wetting fluid. The container is then rotated and the centrifugal force produces a pressure gradient throughout the sample, directed outward from the axis of rotation. It is normally the case that the wetting fluid is denser than the non-wetting fluid so that a higher pressure is developed in the fluid within the sample. The excess pressure in the wetting fluid is the capillary pressure, and it is this pressure that causes the wetting fluid to be expelled out of the end of the sample furthest from the axis of rotation. At the same time non-wetting fluid enters at the nearest end, At a constant rate of rotation an equilibrium saturation distribution will develop according to the relationship between capillary pressure and saturation, and it is this relationship that needs to be determined. The established equilibrium saturation can be calculated by measuring the amount of wetting fluid that flows out of the sample. The prevailing capillary pressure can be determined from the geometry of the centrifuge, the density difference between the fluids and the angular velocity. By making such measurements at a series of angular velocities the nature of the capillary pressure / saturation relationship can be determined. 2.5.2 Measurement by Displacement Method The displacement method of determining capillary pressure attempts to model a non-wetting phase displacing a wetting phase, as would be the case when oil first migrated into the reservoir. From equation (2.5) it follows that the capillary pressure measured in any given porous system using any particular pair of fluids is related to that obtained with any other pair of fluids by the ratio o cos@. This can be shown by applying equation (2.5) to both systems. 26, cos, r P, (2.10) aR rg Storage Capacty of Reservar Rocks [Link] (¢ PETROMAN Carin Univers of Technstogy Master of Petrolaum Enginscng Separmont of Staleum Engnessng Formation Evalaton 26, c0s6, Pp, = 7028088, (2.11) Inserting the expression for r from equation (2.10) into equation (2.11) gives (2.12 The values of interfacial tension, o, and contact angle, @, are known for a range of pairs of fluids of relevance in reservoir engineering, These are highlighted in Table (2.1), Welling Phase Nor-welling Conditions Contact Angle Interfacial Phase (Degrees) Tension (dynes/cm) Brine Oi Reservoir 30 30 Brine oil Laboratory 30 48 Brine Gas Reservoir 0 (60) Brine Gas Laboratory 0 72 oll Gas Reservoir 0 4 Gas Mercury Laboratory 140 480 Table (2.1) Typical Fluid Pairs used in Capillary Pressure Measurements The advantage of this is that controlled experiments in the laboratory can be performed using a simpler fluid arrangement than actually exists in the reservoir. It is then a very straightforward matter to convert the laboratory results to reservoir conditions. Air and brine are frequently used as the pseudo-reservoir fluids and the displacement is effected by increasing air pressure, in a series of discrete steps, in water-saturated core plugs. The increase in pressure forces water out of the core reducing the water saturation, This reduction may be determined by weighing the core plug In the past it was often the case that mercury, because of its strongly non- wetting character, was used to determine a mercury / air relationship which was then converted to a brine / hydrocarbon relationship, using the method described above. It will be useful to describe this process in a little more detail, as it will show how the general conversion equation, which was derived from expressions applying to capillaries of equal radii, applies to more complex systems. Figure (2.10) presents a highly stylised picture of the various steps in the process when a dry, air-filled core sample is immersed in a bath of mercury and the system is gradually pressurised. In this situation mercury is the non- wetting fluid and so it will be the largest rock capillary that will be flooded first. eR rg ‘Storage Capacity of Reservir Rocks [Link] @ PETROMAN Curtin University of Technology Master of Pavolaum Engineering Department of Petoleum Enginesing Formation Evaluation (Although it may seem strange, air is the wetting phase in this situation and what is depicted in Figure (2.10) is, in fact, a drainage process.) Or Loy ——"s , = 6 Loy 5 — 2 |p 5 2 P a . Lo ——" z 5 100% 50% ° Mercury (Non-wetting Phase Saturation) DR, (% of Pore Volume) ~~ Loy ——"s Figure (2.10) Mercury Injection Capillary Pressure Experiment Figure (2.10) shows an ideal curve for a system with three distinct pore throat sizes. Other ‘idealised’ situations are of course possible and some of these are shown in Figure (2.11). aR ag ‘Storage Capacty of Reservar Rocks [Link] Curtin University of Technology Master of Pavolaum Engineering Department of Petoleum Enginesing Formation Evaluation Bimodal Shipey yeoly, a1og annoays, Mercury Injection Capillary Pressure 100% 0% Mercury (Non-wetting Phase Saturation) (% of Pore Volume) Figure (2.11) ld ised Mercury Injection Curve Shapes The bimodal case is just another example of that already presented in Figure (2.10). A well-sorted porous core sample is one in which there is essentially only one pore throat radius to consider. Once this has been breached the entire sample, apart from the small volume taken up by any compressed air trapped in the pores, will become filled with mercury. At the other extreme, when the core comprises a continuous range of pore throat sizes to be overcome, the core will only fill gradually as the pressure is increased. Obviously a range of outcomes is possible between the extremes of a “well-sorted” and “unsorted” core sample, and one such case, described as “poorly sorted”, has been indicated Obviously it is possible to relate the gradual flooding of the sample to the pore throat radius and a typical relationship is shown in Figure (2.12). There appears to be an anomaly at the start of the graph, where it seems to remain rather flat. This arises as surface defects, such as scratches and small fractures etc, become filled with mercury prior to any real penetration of the sample. Finally it should be noted that mercury is considered a more dangerous material to work with than perhaps it was in the past, and for this reason many laboratories now have a strict “no mercury” policy. aR ag ‘Storage Capacty of Reservar Rocks [Link] PETROMAN Curtin University of Technology Master of Pavolaum Engineering Department of Petoleum Enginesing Formation Evaluation 2.5.3 Hysteresis Schematic imbibition and drainage curves are shown in Figure (2.13), from which it can be seen that different results are obtained depending on which fluid is displacing which. This phenomenon is referred to as capillary hysteresis. 100 ~ wt s S 8 ‘. 60 & h 2 \ 3 08 z ns sutrco Sees a aot o1 1 0 100 Pore Throat Radius (Mirons) Figure (2.12) Pore Size Distribution from Mercury Injection ep Drainage = 0 & Imbiion Se 1-5, 100% % of Pore Volume Figure (2.13) Capillary Hysteresis SR Storage Capacty of Reservar Rocks [Link] [6 PETROMAN Curtin University of Technology Master of Pavolaum Engineering Department of Petoleum Enginesing Formation Evaluation There is a simple physical model, which will be described with reference to Figure (2.14), that can help in understanding why the drainage curve corresponds to a higher saturation for a given capillary pressure. drainage non-equilibrium ‘equilibrium imbibition ‘non-equilibrium ‘equilibrium | SEL Figure (2.14) A Simple Model of Capillary Hysteresis Consider a capillary tube having variations in radius along its length. When such a tube is dipped into water the water rises in the tube until the hydrostatic fluid head in the tube becomes equal to the capillary pressure. As the meniscus advances and approaches a constriction, it “jumps” through the neck since finer capillaries have stronger sucking power. If the tube is then lifted to a higher level in the water, some water will drain out in order to establish a new equilibrium level in the tube. However as the meniscus recedes and approaches a constriction, it becomes trapped by the neck since itis difficult to force liquid down a thin capillary (such as a drinking straw). The CHARTER Storage Capacty of Reservoir Rocks [Link] Curtin University of Technology Master of Pavolaum Engineering Department of Petoleum Enginesing Formation Evaluation situation that arises is that the new equilibrium state contains more water than if this state had been arrived at by purely an imbibition process. In practice, the use of either the drainage or imbibition curve makes little difference to volumetric calculations. By convention, drainage curves are used. 2.6 Fluid Distribution in a Real Reservoir When one fluid displaces another immiscibly in a porous medium, the displaced fluid saturation can become small but it can never be reduced to zero; there is always a residual, or irreducible, saturation that remains Accordingly oil, generated in deep source rock, on migrating into a water filled reservoir displaces some but not all of the water it encounters. This irreducible water saturation is referred to as connate water. Since this connate water is immobile, its only influence in reservoir engineering calculations is to reduce the reservoir volume that can be occupied by hydrocarbons. Connate water saturation is generally denoted by S,. and typically varies between 2 and 50%. (Similarly when water or some other immiscible fluid displaces oil or gas, the minimum saturation of the oil or gas remaining is called the residual saturation. These are generally denoted S,, and S,, respectively.) Other features of oil migration will now be discussed in order to arrive at the final static fluid distribution that has developed over geological time. 2.6.1 Oil Migration The balance between capillary pressure and gravity forces ultimately determines the relative saturations of the oil and water at each point in the reservoir. In simple terms there is a competition between the water and the oil Water preferentially rises up the capillaries (assuming a water-wet scenario) but oil, being lighter than water, would prefer to float on the water, Over geological time these forces have had time to equilibrate resulting in a static fluid configuration. Figure (2.15) is a schematic of how the buoyancy forces, due to the density difference between water and hydrocarbon, and the capillary forces, due to interfacial tension and pore geometry, can result in quite different final fluid distributions, Figure (2.15a) depicts a system where even the largest pore entry is so narrow that the capillary pressure resisting migration is too high for buoyancy effects to overcome and the reservoir becomes effectively sealed, There is a sharp interface between the oil and water. Figure (2.15b) shows a slightly different porous medium where some but not all of the pore entries are large enough to allow migration to continue to take place until, once more, the reservoir is sealed. As can be seen, some of the water remains in the pore space, giving rise to a region that is less than 100% saturated with water. In this scenario a sharp interface between oil and water eR ga Storage Capacty of Reservar Rocks [Link] @ PETROMAN Curtin University of Technology Master of Parolaum Engineering Department of Pevoleum Enginesing Formation Evaluaton does not exist and a region with a water saturation between the connate saturation and 100% is present. S,, = 100% PP. Figure (2.15a & b) The Migration of Hydrocarbons 2.6.2 Hydrocarbon Seals, It should also be apparent that the displacement pressure, which is the pressure required for the non-wetting phase to enter the largest pore, will increase as the rock becomes ‘tighter” or less permeable, and this is, indeed, found to be the case, Figure (2.16) illustrates this phenomenon. Capiary Pressure Displacemen Pressure Water Saturation (%) Figure (2.16) Capillary Pressure and Displacement (Entry) Pressure CHAPTER? Page 2 ‘Storage Capacity of Reservar Rocks [Link] Curtin University of Technology Master of Pavolaum Engineering Department of Petoleum Enginesing Formation Evaluation Figure (2.16) is slightly misleading in that it implies the possibility of a simple relationship existing between permeability and the shape of capillary pressure curves. Unfortunately this is not the case. It is certainly true that the displacement (or entry) pressure rises as the permeability decreases but the general shapes of the curves after this point may be quite different, depending on the precise nature of the medium. In practice, capillary curves from different rock types will often cross each other. For a given geological setting, as oil continues to migrate into a reservoir, the integrity of the reservoir seal might be compromised if the buoyancy pressure becomes sufficiently strong. By rearranging equation (2.8) it can be seen that h=———_ (2.13) 0434 (a7) (2.13) In the context of a hydrocarbon seal this becomes Faby (2.14) Igy = a P ve 9.434107) = maximum column of hydrocarbon that can be supported brine / hydrocarbon displacement pressure of the seal P4, = brine / hydrocarbon displacement pressure of the reservoir If, through the migration of more and more oil, the oil pressure rises above the seal displacement pressure then leakage will occur Seal characteristics are useful in prospect evaluations since they can indicate an upper limit on the likely volume of hydrocarbons within a play, which is a key parameter in deciding economic viability. 2.6.3 Transition Zones The oil has now reached its highest migration position. The height of the region at the top of the structure in which the water saturation is greater than its connate value (i.e. the oil is below its maximum) will generally be very small (refer to Figure (2.15)). The cap rock normally represents a distinct change in reservoir quality such that the oil has an uninterrupted passage until it reaches the discontinuity. In the bulk of the reservoir oil will be found in the presence of connate water. In this region only the oil is mobile. To complete the description of fluid distributions throughout the entire reservoir, it is necessary to consider what is happening at the base of the oil accumulation. Again, the balancing of capillary pressure and gravity gives the answer. Since most reservoirs have a wide variety of pore sizes, water is pulled up into the smaller pores by capillary pressure (in a water-wet reservoir) leaving the larger pores occupied by oil or gas. Schematically this is the inverse of Figure (2.15). The zone above the aR rg Storage Capacty of Reservar Rocks [Link] (¢ PETROMAN Curtin University of Technology Master of Parolaum Engineering Department of Pevoleum Enginesing Formation Evaluaton free water contact into which this water is pulled up by capillary pressure is called the transition zone and is shown schematically in Figure (2.17) for a single-layered reservoir. Water Water and Oil oll f Transition Zone Y voor 0.2 4 6 & 10 Figure (2.17) Oil and Water Saturations in the Transition Zone Transition zones can vary enormously in height, depending on reservoir quality, from hundreds of feet to essentially zero. The shape of the saturation profile with height is, as has been shown earlier, identical to the capillary pressure profile with height. If the reservoir contains gas then there will also be a transition zone between the oil and the gas, and the arguments for its creation are identical to those used to describe the formation of the water / oil transition zone. The surface tension between oil and gas is always small (refer to Table (2.1)) and so it is always the case that the capillary pressure, and hence the height of the oil / gas transition zone, will be negligible. Figure (2.18) shows the situation for a multi-layer system. Depending on the siting of the well several oil water contacts may be detected, all sharing a ‘common free water level, which may or may not be detected. The water saturation profile encountered at the well, and how it relates to the individual capillary pressure curves, is shown in Figure (2.19). This information, which will be contained in log data, is important in correlating oil / water contacts and in the zonation of reservoirs. aR ‘Storage Capacity of Reservar Rocks [Link] Curtin University of Technology Master of Pavolaum Engineering Department of Pevoleum Enginecing Formation Evaluation k,> > ky> ky > ky Figure (2.18) Oil / Water Contacts and the Free Water Level in a Layered Reservoir 1 k,>k,> ky > k> ky ; \ Depth epth | ‘ | owc, 5 owc, FWL S, 100 % Figure (2.19) Water Saturation Profile for a Layered Reservoir RR Storage Capac of Reservoir Rocks [Link] Curtin University of Technology Master of Pavolaum Engineering Department of Petoleum Enginesing Formation Evaluation 27. The Leverett Function Attempts are often made to correlate capillary pressure data using a method known as the Leverett / Function technique. This function averages capillary pressure data by accounting for variations in permeability and porosity in core samples taken from the same region of rock, and for differences in interfacial tension if tests were performed using more than one pair of fluids. It can be particularly useful when attempting to estimate connate water saturations and when populating reservoir simulation models with initial saturation data. The J Function approach is essentially an attempt to link permeability and porosity in a simple way. As has been noted previously, with reference to Figure (2.17), it is tempting to suppose that there might be a simple relationship between these two parameters. Unfortunately this is not the case in practice and a detailed theoretical examination shows that the subject is extremely complex. In a purely abstract sense, difficulties might be anticipated in attempting to relate a static scalar parameter (porosity) to a dynamic tensor parameter (permeability). Nevertheless, it tends to be the case that high porosity systems have high permeability (and vice versa) and the J Function approach, described here, accounts for this in a remarkably simple and logical way and does seem to work on many occasions. 2.7.1 Model Assumptions and Method The method assumes that the entire porous medium can be thought of as a collection of capillary tubes of equal radius (7). If this were the case, then it is fairly straightforward to show that the flow rate (q) is related to the pressure drop (Ap), viscosity of the fluid (u) and the length of the capillary (Lea) as follows (2.15) In fact this is referred to as Hagen-Poiseuille's law. The porosity (9) of a bundle of (n) capillaries whose ends occupy a surface area of (4) is given by g=nm/4 (2.16) Also, via Darcy's law (which will be covered extensively later), permeability (k) can be defined from experiments carried out on a length of core sample (Cer) as = Gee / AP (2.17) aR rg Storage Capacty of Reservar Rocks [Link] Curtin University of Technology Master of Pavolaum Engineering Department of Petoleum Enginesing Formation Evaluation ‘An expression can then be found for the capillary radius by combining equations (2.15), (2.16) and (2.17) into the following BK/PM Lan [Lie (2.18) By introducing Ly and Leo it is explicitly recognised that the length of the capillary is not equal to the length of the path the fluid takes through the core, since the path will certainly not be straight. However, if it is assumed that the ratio of the “straight” path length to the actual path length, referred to as the tortuosity, is constant for a given reservoir, then equation (2.18) may be written as r=CVK/¢) (2.19) where Cis a constant. Using equation (2.5), which defines capillary pressure, it is then a straightforward matter to define the dimensionless function J as [Ko ocos J= (2.20) The drainage contact angle, @ , should be low in a properly prepared core sample, and so cos@is often taken as unity. After plotting the resulting J values against wetting phase saturation, a single curve is drawn through the data so that each J value corresponds to a unique saturation, shown in Figure (2.20). A different J Function should be developed for each distinct lithology or rock type identified in the reservoir. (In the original work Leverett plotted the dimensionless values against the non-wetting phase saturation, hence the name *J" Function) Water saturation versus height can be estimated from the J Function for each well using foot-by-foot porosity and permeability data, and measured or estimated reservoir fluid densities and interfacial tension. Core data are used where available, Porosity logs and k-¢ correlations are used if a well was not cored. For each k-¢ data point, a value of J is calculated for that foot of the well by substituting into the J Function expression the relationship between capillary pressure and height above the free water level, as given by equation (2.8) or its equivalent form in terms of fluid densities P. Daye ean) Where his in feet (ft), capillary pressure is in pounds per square inch (psi) and densities are in pounds per feet cubed (Ibt’). eR ga Storage Capacty of Reservir Rocks [Link] Curtin University of Technology Master of Pavolaum Engineering Department of Petoleum Enginesing Formation Evaluation From the calculated J value, water saturation is estimated from the J function plot. ‘ | 5 | 1) easy ini) Panty 58 ‘ ma 20 40 60 80 100 Figure (2.20) A Typical Leverett J Function 2.7.2 Applicability In practice the J Function approach seems to work well or not at all! The data seems to either line up on a very respectable line or degenerate into a cloud of points, Plotting the available data soon tells the reservoir engineer whether he is in luck or not. However, recent investigations using high-powered computers coupled with slick data visualisation tools seem to suggest that many cases that apparently failed in the past probably did so because the raw data had not been sorted properly. What this means is that if the rock types could be more rigorously segregated then the expected shapes, according to the J function approach, should emerge. That is, the “\/'s are there, they just need to be found. In fact proponents of this method are now using powerful sorting routines (together with sophisticated statistical packages since it is certainly not just a “sorting problem") to help delineate connected and non-connected regions within reservoirs, aR ag Storage Capacty of Reservar Rocks [Link] (¢ PETROMAN Curtin University of Technology Master of Pavolaum Engineering Department of Petoleum Enginesing Formation Evaluation Although there are certainly problems with the model formulation, and it could never stand up as a rigorous piece of theory, it would nevertheless appear to have quite a wide practical application if data has been grouped appropriately. 28 References Standard Texts 1, Dake L.P., 1994, The Practice of Reservoir Engineering (Elsevier) 2. Slider H.C., 1983, Worldwide Practical Petroleum Engineering Methods (PennWell Books) 3. Dake L.P., 1978, Fundamentals of Reservoir Engineering (Elsevier) 4. Collins R.E., 1976, Flow of Fluids Through Porous Materials (van Nostrand) 5. Craft B.C. and Hawkins M-F., 1959, Petroleum Reservoir Engineering (Prentice-Hall Inc.) 6. Muskatt M.,1949, Physical Principals of Oil Production, (McGraw-Hill) terature 1, Amott E., 1959, Observations Relating to the Wettability of Porous Rock (Trans AIME 216,156,1959) 2. Vavra C.L., Kaldi J.G. and Sneider R.M., 1992, Geological Application of Capillary Pressure: A Review (American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, V76 No6) Research into J Functions 1. O'Meara DJ Institute for Reservoir Characterization, University of Oklahoma htto:/[Link] (need to apply for a password) aR rg Storage Capacty of Reservar Rocks [Link]

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