Class 12 Biology

Chapter 2- Human Reproduction

Basic Steps in Human Reproduction:

1. Gametogenesis

2. Insemination

3. Fertilization

4. Blastocyst development

5. Implantation

6. Embryo development

7. Parturition

3.1 Male Reproductive System

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There are four main parts in the male reproductive system:

1. Testes

2. Accessory ducts

3. Glands

4. External Genitalia

Testes (Singular Testis):

 Situated in the pelvic region outside the abdominal cavity within a pouch called a
scrotum.

 A small muscular sac is known as Scrotum that contains and protects the testes. The
scrotum is located behind the penis and is considered a part of the external male genitalia.

 The testes are sited outside the abdominal cavity to maintaining the low temperature of
the testes nearly 2-2.5◦C lower than the average human body temperature. This condition
is necessary for the synthesis of sperms.

 The lower temperature in testes is required for spermatogenesis as the normal human
body temperature can lead to mutation in the sperms.

 Testis is oval in shape with the length of 4-5cm and 2-3cm wide.

 The testis contains about 250 compartments known as Testicular lobules.

 Each lobule normally comprises 1-3 highly coiled seminiferous tubules that play a
significant role in sperm production.

 Seminiferous tubules are the place that forms spermatozoa by the process of meiosis.

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 Each seminiferous tubule contains two types of cells i.e., spermatogonia and Sertoli cells
in their inner lining.

 These spermatogonia are diploid in nature and called the immature germ cells and they
form the sperm by the process of meiosis. They contain 46 chromosomes in their cells.

 Sertoli cells in seminiferous tubules provide nutrition to the spermatogonia.

 Interstitial spaces are the region that presents outside the seminiferous tubule that
contains the small blood vessels, Leydig cells, and some immunocompetent cells.

 Leydig cells synthesize and secrete the testicular hormones called androgens.

Accessory Ducts:
The accessory ducts facilitate the transportation of the sperms from the testes to the urethra
for their release outside the body. The male reproductive system consists of four accessory
ducts:

 Rete Testis

 Vasa efferentia

 Epididymis

 Vas deferens

Rete Testis: These are the ducts where the seminiferous tubules open into a series of
channels.

Vasa Efferentia: These ducts make a pathway to transport the sperm from the rete testis to
the epididymis which is placed in the posterior surface of each testis.

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Epididymis: It is a long, coiled tube that connects a testicle to a vas deferens. The
Epididymis is sited on the backside of each testicle.

Vas Deferens: Vas deferens is a muscular duct that ascends into the abdominal cavity and
makes a loop over the urinary bladder. It transports the sperm from the epididymis to the
ejaculatory duct.

Ejaculatory Duct: This duct is situated on each side of the prostate gland. Ejaculatory ducts
store and transport the sperms from the testis to the outside via the urethra.

Urethra: Urethra is a thin muscular tube that originates from the urinary bladder and then
passes through the penis to its external opening known as the urethral meatus.

Figure: Male reproductive system

Accessory Glands
There are mainly three types of accessory glands:

 Seminal vesicles

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 Prostate gland

 Bulbourethral glands

These glands secrete the seminal plasma that mainly contains fructose, calcium, and certain
enzymes. This secretion mixes with the sperms to nourish and protect them.

Seminal Vesicles: The Seminal vesicles contribute a significant proportion of approximately

60-75% of the fluid in semen. This fluid is rich in enzymes, proteins, vitamin C, fructose,
prostaglandins, and phosphorylcholine. The high fructose content gives nutrient energy to
the spermatozoa.

Prostate Gland: The prostate gland is a dense structure that is placed just inferior to the
urinary bladder. The secretion of the prostate gland is slightly alkaline, thin, and milky
colored. It helps in the survival of sperms in the acidic vaginal environment and also
improves the motility of the sperms.

Bulbourethral Glands: The secretion of these glands helps in the lubrication of the penis
and also neutralizes any residual acidity in the urethra.

Female Reproductive System:

The human female reproductive system is specialized to carry out various functions like
gametogenesis, ovulation, fertilization, pregnancy, birth, and child care. The female
reproductive system is made up of several parts:

1. A pair of ovaries

2. A pair of oviducts

3. Uterus

4. Cervix

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5. Vagina

6. External genitalia

7. Mammary glands

Ovaries:

 The ovaries are small and oval-shaped and are known as primary female sex organs.

 They produce the female gamete generally called ovum and also produce ovarian
hormones.

 The ovaries are about 2-4cm in length.

 They are connected to the pelvic wall and uterus with the help of ligaments.

 The ovaries are protected by a thin epithelium which encircles the ovarian stroma.

Ovarian stroma- It is the matrix of the ovary which is divided into two regions:
[Link] cortex

2. Inner medulla

3. Accessory Ducts:

The accessory ducts of the female reproductive system include the oviducts, uterus, and
vagina.

Oviduct (Fallopian Tube):

 A fallopian tube is generally 10-12 cm in length.

 It covers from the periphery region of each ovary to the uterus.

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Infundibulum: It is a proximal part of the oviduct that is present closer to the ovary. It is
funnel-shaped and possesses fimbriae.

Fimbriae: They are the finger-like projections located at the edges of the infundibulum.
They help in the collection of the ovum after ovulation

Ampulla: This is the wider part of the oviduct that connects with the infundibulum.

Isthmus: This is the last part of the oviduct that extends through the uterine walls and opens
into a narrow lumen.

Figure: Female reproductive system

Uterus:

 The uterus has also been named the womb.

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 It is designed like an inverted pear and attached to the pelvic wall by ligaments.

 In the uterus, the embryo develops into the foetus.

 It opens into the vagina via a narrow cervix.

 Uterine wall possesses three layers of tissues- perimetrium, myometrium, and the
endometrium

Perimetrium: This is the thin external membranous layer that protects the uterus from
friction.
Myometrium: It is the thick middle layer that is made up of smooth muscle. It shows strong
contractions at the time of the delivery of the baby
Endometrium: This is the inner glandular layer that lines the uterine cavity. It undergoes
periodic changes during the menstrual cycle.

Cervix:

 It is a narrow canal usually 2 to 3 cm in length that connects the uterus to the vagina.

 Cervical Canal: The cervical canal connects the cavity of the body of the uterus with
the lumen of the vagina.

 Birth Canal: The cervical canal along with the vagina forms the birth canal which helps
during the birth of the baby.

External Female Genitalia:

The main external female genitalia of the female reproductive system consists of the mons
pubis, labia majora, labia minora, hymen, and clitoris.

Mons Pubis: It is a cushion of fatty tissue which is covered by hair and skin.

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Labia Majora: They are fleshy folds of tissue that enclose and protect the external
reproductive organs. It extends from the mons pubis and covers the vaginal opening.

Labia Minora: They are the paired folds of tissue that lies just inside the labia majora

Hymen: Hymen is a thin membrane that surrounds the opening of the vagina. It is often torn
during the first intercourse or coitus or it can also be broken by participation in some sports
like horseback riding, cycling, apart from this a sudden fall or jolt, insertion of a vaginal
tampon is also the reason for the broken hymen. In some women, the hymen can continue
even after coitus so it shows that the presence or absence of a hymen is not a reliable
indication of virginity or sexual experience.

Clitoris: It is a small, sensitive, finger-like projection that is present at the junction of the
labia minora above the urethral opening.

Mammary Glands:

All-female mammals possess a pair of functional mammary glands. The breasts are paired
structures that are made up of glandular tissue and variable amounts of fats. Each mammary
gland consists of 15-20 mammary lobes. These mammary lobes contain clusters of cells
known as alveoli. The secretion of milk takes place by the cells of the alveoli. This secreted
milk is stored in the lumen or cavities of the alveoli which open into the mammary tubules.
These mammary tubules of each lobe join to form a mammary duct.

Gametogenesis:
It is the process by which the primary male and female sex organs like the testes in males
and the ovaries in the female produce gametes.

Spermatogenesis: This is the process by which the immature male germ cells also known as
spermatogonia produce mature sperm cells in the testis.

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Oogenesis: Oogenesis is the process by which the immature oogonia in the ovaries produces
a mature ovum.

Spermatogenesis: The spermatogenesis process starts at puberty and proceeds as follows:

First of all, the spermatogonia multiply by mitosis to increase in number. They are present
inside the inner wall of seminiferous tubules where they multiply by mitotic division. Each
spermatogonium is diploid in nature and contains 46 chromosomes.

Some spermatogonia known as the primary spermatocytes occasionally undergo meiosis to

form two equal, haploid cells. These cells are called secondary spermatocytes. Due to their
haploid nature, they contain 23 chromosomes.

The secondary spermatocytes further undergo second meiotic division and produce four
haploid spermatids that also contain 23 chromosomes.

The spermatids then undergo spermiogenesis to produce sperms (spermatozoa). The heads of
the sperms are embedded in the Sertoli cells.
The sperms are finally free from the seminiferous tubules by the process of spermiation.

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Spermatogonia: They are the immature male germ cells that undergo meiotic divisions to
form sperms. Spermatogonium (singular) is diploid in nature and contains 46 chromosomes.

Primary Spermatocytes: These are the spermatogonia that undergo the meiosis process to
form two equal haploid cells called secondary spermatocytes. They contain 46 chromosomes
in each cell.

Secondary Spermatocytes: They are haploid in nature and arise from the primary
spermatocytes as a result of meiosis I. They comprise 23 chromosomes.

Spermatids: These cells are arising from the secondary spermatocytes as a result of meiosis
II. Spermatids are haploid cells that contain 23 chromosomes.

Spermiogenesis: It is the process by which spermatids mature to form spermatozoa or

sperms.

Spermiation: This is the process by which sperms are released from the seminiferous
tubules.

Hormones Affecting Spermatogenesis:

Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH): Gonadotropin-releasing hormone is the
hypothalamic factor. The levels of this hormone increase mainly at puberty. The secretion of
GnRH stimulates the release of two gonadotropins from the anterior pituitary – Follicle
Stimulating Hormone (FSH) and Luteinizing Hormone (LH).

Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH): This hormone acts on the Sertoli cells where it
stimulates the release of some factors that play an important role in the process of
spermatogenesis.

Luteinizing Hormone (LH): LH is important in regulating the function of testes and ovaries.
It acts on the Leydig cells where it stimulates the synthesis and secretion of androgens.

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Structure of Sperm:

 Sperm is a male reproductive cell that is made up of a head, neck, middle piece, and tail.

 The whole body of the sperm is covered by a plasma membrane

 Head: The head portion of the sperm contains an elongated, haploid nucleus

 The anterior portion of the head contains an acrosome which contains some enzymes that
help in dissolving the membrane of the egg cell and help in fertilization of the ovum.

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 Middle Piece: It comprises several mitochondria that provide energy for the vigorous
motility of the tail. The movement of the tail is essential for fertilization because it helps
sperm to move towards the ovum.

 Approximately 200-300 million sperms are released during ejaculation. Out of these, at
least 60% of them should have normal size and shape and at least 40% should show
vigorous motility.

 Semen: It is a milky white organic liquid that is released by the penis at the time of
ejaculation. It includes sperms and the fluids secreted by the accessory ducts and the
accessory glands like epididymis, vas deferens, prostate, seminal vesicles, and the
bulbourethral glands.

 The testicular hormones also known as androgens maintain the functions of the male
accessory ducts and glands.

Oogenesis:
 The process of formation of a mature female gamete is known as Oogenesis. It is
introduced during the embryonic development stage. At this stage, a few million gamete
mother cells or oogonia are formed in the fetal ovary. After birth, no more oogonia are
formed or added.

 The oogonia form primary oocytes that form by the process of meiosis and get arrested
at the stage of Prophase.
 Each primary follicle is formed by primary oocytes which are surrounded by a layer of
granulosa cells.
 Between birth to puberty, a large number of primary follicles get degenerated. Therefore,
there are only about 60,000-80,000 primary follicles available in the ovary at the time of
puberty.

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 These remaining primary follicles get surrounded by a few more layers of granulosa cells
as well as a new theca to form the secondary follicle.
 The tertiary follicle is formed by the secondary follicle. It is characterized by the
presence of a fluid-filled space called an antrum and two layers of the theca. The layers
of theca are arranged into two layers-inner theca interna and the outer theca externa. The
primary oocyte increases in size and completes its first meiotic division. This division is
an unequal division that forms a large secondary oocyte and a tiny first polar body.
 Secondary oocyte consists of much of the nutrient-rich cytoplasm and it also develops a
thick covering known as zona pellucida.
 The tertiary follicle is finally converted into the mature Graafian follicle.
 This Graafian follicle now ruptures and releases the secondary oocyte or ovum from the
ovary. The process of release of the ovum is called ovulation.

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Menstrual Cycle:

 Menstrual Cycle: This is the reproductive cycle that starts from one menstruation till
the next one. It mainly occurs in female primates like monkeys, apes, and human beings.
The cycle repeats at an interval of 28-35 days and normally releases one egg per cycle.
This cycle is important for the production of oocytes and for the preparation of the uterus
for pregnancy.

 Menstruation: In this process, the blood and mucosal tissue are regularly discharged in
a periodic manner. It occurs due to the breakage of the inner lining of the uterus. This
process takes place once a month and is called a period.

 Menarche: Menarche is the first menstruation for a human female that begins at puberty.
The actual age for menarche generally differs from person to person. The first
menstruation is the signal of the beginning of reproductive age in females.

 Menopause: Menopause is defined as the permanent ceasing of the menstrual cycle in

females. It occurs due to the depletion of oocytes and the loss of the ability of the ovary
to produce estrogen as a result of aging. menopause. The average age of menopause is
between 45-50 years and it varies from person to person.

Phases of the Menstrual Cycle:

The menstrual cycle follows four phases:

1. Menstrual phase

2. Follicular phase

3. Ovulation

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4. Luteal Phase

1. Menstrual Phase: In this phase, the menstrual flow takes place.

 The flow naturally lasts for 3-5 days.

 In this phase, the breakdown of the endometrial lining of the uterus along with blood
vessels forms a red liquid substance that comes out of the vagina.

 This process only takes place in the condition when the ovum released by the ovary is
not fertilized.

 At the time of pregnancy, the menstrual flow does not occur.

 Some factors like stress, poor diet, poor health, etc. affect menstruation.

2. Follicular Phase: In this phase, maturation of Graafian follicle occurs.

 In the ovary, the primary follicles grow to become a fully mature Graafian follicle.

 The endometrium lining of the uterus regenerates by proliferation.

 These changes in endometrium and follicular regeneration are induced by ovarian

hormones- Luteinizing Hormone (LH) and the Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH).

 The secretion of LH and FSH gonadotropins increases gradually in this phase to

stimulate follicular development. The secretion of estrogens by the growing follicles is
also stimulated by this increased level of LH and FSH.

3. Ovulation/Ovulatory Phase: This is the phase where the release of the ovum from the
ovary takes place.
 In this phase, the levels of LH and FSH attain a peak at mid-cycle, around the 14th day.

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LH Surge: The rapid secretion of LH leading to maximum LH level in mid cycle is called
the LH surge. It induces the rupture of the Graafian follicle to release the ovum.

Ovulation: The release of an ovum from a mature Graafian follicle is known as ovulation. It
occurs due to the LH surge which takes place in mid-cycle around the 14th day.

4. Luteal Phase: This is the phase of formation of the corpus luteum and it is also known as
the secretary phase.

 The ruptured parts of the Graafian follicle after ovulation form the yellow body called
corpus luteum.
 It secretes large amounts of progesterone hormone which maintains the endometrium.
The endometrium is required for the implantation of the fertilized ovum and other events
of pregnancy.
 During pregnancy, there is no menstruation because of all events of the menstrual cycle
stop.
 In absence of fertilization, the corpus luteum degenerates. This causes the disintegration
of the endometrium leading to menstruation and hence a new cycle starts.

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Fertilisation and Implantation:

Insemination: It is the process in which semen is released into the vagina by the penis
during coitus or copulation.

 The motile male gamete or sperm swims rapidly through the cervix, enters into the
uterus, and finally reaches the site of fertilization which is in the ampullary region of the
fallopian tube.

 The ovum which is released by the ovary is also transferred to the ampullary region of
the fallopian tube.

 Fertilization takes place in the fallopian tube only when the ovum and sperms are
simultaneously transferred into the site of fertilization.

Fertilisation: It is the fusion of the haploid male gamete or sperm and the haploid female
gamete or egg. At the time of fertilization, the sperm makes changes in the zona pellucida
layer of the ovum to block the entry of other sperms. This ensures that only one sperm can
fertilize a single ovum.
 The secretions of the acrosome make easy the entry of the sperm to the ovum by the
zona pellucida and the plasma membrane.
 This phenomenon induces the secondary oocyte to complete meiosis. This is again an
unequal division and forms a second polar body and a haploid ovum.
 The haploid nucleus of the sperm and the ovum fuse together and form a diploid zygote.
Hence, a zygote contains 46 chromosomes.
 The sex chromosome in the sperm is the factor that determined the sex of the fetus. As
the female is XX the ovum will always carry the X chromosome, however, Males are
XY and therefore, the sperm can contain either X or Y. Hence, half of all the sperms
carry the X chromosome, and the remaining half carry the Y chromosome.

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 The zygote that carries an XY would develop into a male while XX would develop into a
female.
 The zygote is divided by the mitotic division which starts as it moves along the isthmus
of the oviduct towards the uterus and forms 2, 4, 8, and 16 daughter cells known as
blastomeres.
 Morula: The embryo with 8-16 blastomeres is known as a morula.
 It continues its division as it moves further along into the uterus. The blastomeres are
arranged into two layers. First is the outer layer called the trophoblast and the other is the
inner cell mass which is attached to the trophoblast.
 The trophoblast layer then attaches to the endometrium of the uterus.
 The inner cell mass differentiates to cover the blastocyst.
 The cells of the blastocyst embedded in the uterine wall. This phenomenon is called
implantation which leads to pregnancy.

Pregnancy And Embryonic Development

Chorionic Villi and Placenta:

 After implantation, chorionic villi form on the trophoblast, surrounded by uterine tissue
and maternal blood.

 The chorionic villi and uterine tissue interlock to form the placenta, which connects the
developing embryo to the mother.

 The placenta provides oxygen and nutrients to the embryo and removes waste products.

Umbilical Cord:

 The placenta is connected to the embryo by the umbilical cord, which transports
substances to and from the embryo.

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Placenta as Endocrine Tissue:

 The placenta produces important hormones like hCG, hPL, estrogens, and progestogens.

 Relaxin is also produced by the ovary later in pregnancy.

 These hormones are crucial for supporting the fetus and maintaining pregnancy.

Embryonic Layers:

 After implantation, the inner cell mass of the embryo forms three layers: ectoderm,
endoderm, and mesoderm.

 These layers develop into all the tissues and organs in the adult body.

 Stem cells in the inner cell mass have the ability to form any tissue or organ.

Fetal Development Milestones:

 1st Month: The embryo's heart forms and can be heard with a stethoscope.

 2nd Month: Limbs and digits develop.

 12 Weeks (1st Trimester): Major organs, limbs, and external genitalia are formed.

 5th Month: The fetus starts moving, and hair begins to grow on the head.

 24 Weeks (End of 2nd Trimester): The body is covered with fine hair, eyelids separate,
and eyelashes form.

 9 Months: The fetus is fully developed and ready for birth.

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Parturition and Lactation:

Gestation Period: The average duration of human pregnancy is about 9 months, known as
the gestation period.

Parturition:

 Parturition is the process of childbirth or delivery of the fetus.

 It begins with strong uterine contractions at the end of pregnancy.

 Parturition is triggered by a neuroendocrine mechanism involving signals from the fully

developed fetus and placenta.

 These signals cause mild contractions known as the fetal ejection reflex.

 The reflex triggers the release of oxytocin from the maternal pituitary gland.

 Oxytocin causes stronger uterine contractions, which stimulate more oxytocin release.

 This positive feedback loop results in increasingly strong contractions, leading to the
expulsion of the baby through the birth canal.

 After delivery, the placenta is also expelled from the uterus.

Lactation:

 During pregnancy, the mammary glands prepare for milk production, a process known as
lactation.

 Milk production begins towards the end of pregnancy.

 The milk produced initially is called colostrum.

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 Colostrum contains antibodies essential for the newborn’s immune system.

 Breastfeeding is recommended for the first period of infant growth to ensure the baby’s
health.

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