BOTANY

CLASS XI
(Under AHSEC Curriculum)

Content Developed by-

Dr. Dandadhar Bora
Associate Professor
Dept. of Botany
Cotton College, Assam

Assam Electronics Development Corporation Limited

(AMTRON)
(A Government of Assam Undertaking)
Name of the textbook
BIOLOGY

Name of the Chapter

Living World, Its
Diversity and Taxonomy
 CONTENTS

Page No.

1. Study Materials 1-38

2. Question & Answers 39-48

MEANING of LIFE:

It is not easy to define life but it is easy to recognise. The essence of life evidently lies in
particular activities and process or functions. A living organism is so called because its functions
endow it with the property of life and its structure permits the execution of life-sustaining
functions. The living organisms have a capacity to extract and transform energy from the
environment. Life is the result of a certain organisation and activity of chemical substances. The
destruction of the chemical substances of the organism means destruction of life.

The basic and fundamental unit of life form is sub-atomic particles which include electrons,
protons and neutrons. The next larger units are atoms, which in turn form more complex
combinations called chemical compounds. Complexes of chemical compounds are found in both
living and non-living matter. We must go to the level of cell to reach the level of life. A living
organism must consist of at least one cell. Structurally different group of cells constitute a tissue
and organs are the combinations of more than one tissue. The level of organisation is different in
living and non-living objects. Living things represent characteristic levels of organisation.

In one word, life may be defined as a complex and unique organisation of molecules which
expresses itself through various chemical interactions exhibiting the phenomena of life and
responding to stimulations and showing other characteristic features as self-controlled,
duplication of characteristics, growth and evolution.

Other than level of organisation, living matters exhibit some action by which we can distinguish
living from non-living. They are discussed below.

1. Shape and Size:

All kinds of living organisms have their own shapes and sizes. One organism can never be the
size of another. A cat will never look like a dog, a man will never attain the size of an elephant.
But nonliving matters have no definite shape and size of the body. For example, water is
constantly changing its physical property for various reasons. It may be a drop of rain, a pond of
water, a mass of cloud, an iceberg or hot water vapour, yet it is the same water in all the forms in
different physical states.

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2. Metabolism:

It is an intricate group of chemical processes

which are essential for the continuation of life.
Some processes of the metabolism are
constructive (anabolism) and some are
destructive (catabolism). In anabolism process,
energy is stored in the form of complex
biomolecules and in catabolism process,
complex biomolecules are broken down due to
which energy is released to meet the energy
requirement of the organism. Some of the
principal metabolic activities of living objects
are-

a. Photosynthesis: It is the process of manufacturing food by green plants from raw

materials. With the help of chlorophyll pigments, plants synthesize food materials from
water and carbon-di-oxide in presence of sunlight which supplies energy.
b. Respiration: It is the process by which stored food materials are broken down to liberate
energy. It is also known as energy releasing process. The energy released by this process
is used in various metabolic activities.
c. Nutrition: It is the process of taking of food that occurs in several stages like ingestion,
digestion, absorption, assimilation and ejection.
d. Secretion: It is a process by which the unit produces some digestive chemicals, enzymes,
hormones etc. which have great influence on the growth and development of the living
organism.
e. Excretion: This is a process by which the residual and waste products are discharged out
of the body as they are not required for growth and development.

3. Growth:

Increase in size by weight, volume and in number is the growth of the living organisms,
which results from various metabolic activities of the cell reserve food substances are used
for building up of fresh protoplasm in the cell and this type of growth is internal. This type

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 of growth is known as intussusception. Some non-living things also grow by size due to
external deposition of non-living matter which is known as accretion.

4. Reproduction:

It is one of the basic characteristic features of living objects. Living beings have a capacity of
reproducing of similar kinds of off springs. The young ones resemble the parents. Among
less complex organisms, reproduction is simply an extension of the growth process and is
called asexual reproduction. Higher organisms reproduce sexually in which both the parents
contribute to the formation of the new individual. On the other hand, a stone can break down
into different irregular pieces but not of the same type is produced.

5. Life cycle:

All living organisms follow a

definite and distinct life cycle
starting from birth to, death
which is known as duration.
Duration of the life span is
different in different organisms
and the life cycle is also of
varied nature. Each living
organism grows after birth,
reproduces when it gets maturity, then decreases gradually and this period of time is called
senescence. Ultimately the organism dies. Life cycle of each living organism includes birth,
growth, reproduction, senescence and finally death.

6. Irritability:

Responds towards stimuli is one of the distinguishing characters of living organisms. The
changed condition of the environment which excites the living organism is called
stimulus and its reaction in the living body is called response. The power of responding
to stimulus is known as irritability. Heat, light, touch, different types of chemical
substances, hormones, enzymes etc. are some of the stimulants. Irritability may take
place due to the change of both external and internal environment. The leaves of the
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 sensitive plant drop down when we touch it; the body of the snail is withdrawn, when
touched on soft body; a plant placed in a dark chamber always moves towards the source
of light-these are the examples of different types of irritability.

7. Movement and Locomotion:

Living organisms exhibit spontaneous movement. Higher plants do not move from one
place to another, but the movement is recorded like movement of protoplasm within the
cell, climbing of creepers, opening of petals of a flower, movement of roots towards soil,
bending of stem towards light etc. Locomotion is characteristic feature of almost all the
animals and some of the lower plants like Chlamydomonas, Volvox, Eudorina,
Pandorina, Oscillatoria and Bacteria.

8. Evolution:

The biological world with all its diversities ranging from simple form to the highly
complex forms have been interpreted as the result of evolution of living organisms. The
characters of a particular organism change gradually over the course of successive
generations over long periods of time. No present day organism is identical with those of
their ancestors. Evolution is also a method for the formation of new species which is a
continuous process.

9. Adaptation:

This term describes the characteristics of living forms to develop over a period of time
due to certain structural and functional changes which enable them to survive and
reproduce within the limits of a particular environment. One group of changes is
inherited by generations, helping the organism to survive in that particular environment.
When an individual fails to develop these variations, the species dies and becomes
extinct. An adaptation is perfected through different types of evolutionary processes and
is finally established through heredity.

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10. Mutation:

Offspring of living organisms are the exact copies of their parents. But occasionally new
combinations of traits are suddenly produced within the offspring. This type of change in
characters is called mutation and the characteristic is called mutability. Mutability is a
characteristic feature of living organisms.

11. Birth and Death:

The beginning of each life form is birth and the ending is death. No living organism can
be immortal. The life span of some of the living beings is very long. Among plants, red
wood tree and among animals, tortoise live for a very long period of time.

12. Genetic Continuity:

All living organisms exhibit distinct hereditary patterns. They are capable of transmitting
their characters from parents to offspring. Genetic continuity is a must for all living
beings. Weismann (1833) in his famous Germplasm Theory proposed that heredity is
brought by transference of substance with definite chemical and molecular organisation
from one generation to another.

13. Healing:

The property of healing of wounded part is another characteristic feature of life.

14. Co-ordination:

Non-living objects do not exhibit any co-ordination of different parts of the body. On the
other hand, different body parts in a living being co-ordinate their activities and act in
perfect harmony, in spite of having different functions.

By the help of above mentioned characteristics we can easily distinguish living beings from non-
living objects. But virus, the ultra microscopic living body, cannot be distinguished in the above
ways as it behaves like non-living when present outside the living cell. Virus does not have any

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protoplasm in its body though the nucleic acids required for reproduction are present within its
body.

THE MOLECULAR BASIS OF LIFE:

The atoms of living things are held together by the same kinds of bonds that hold the non-living
things together. These are assembled into complex molecules which result in complex structures
and complex properties of life. The body of a living being is constituted of three main types of
organic substances- proteins, carbohydrates and fats and of some inorganic salts. The chemical
components present in living systems are known as biological elements. Carbon, hydrogen,
nitrogen, oxygen, sulphur are major bio-elements and iron, zinc, copper, manganese, magnesium
etc. in small quantities are necessary for living systems. These elements are present in the form
of inorganic or organic biomolecules which are of two types- micro-biomolecules (small sized,
low molecular weight etc.) and macro-biomolecules (large sized, high molecular weight etc.).
According to Linus Pauling, life is the result of an inter relationship of molecules and is not a
property of anyone molecule. Both types of these biomolecules are necessary for metabolism.

The inorganic compounds which are required by living beings are water, small amounts of gases
such as oxygen (O2) carbon-di-oxide (CO2), inorganic salts, including common salt (NaCl)

Roles of Some Micro-Biomolecules in Life:

1. Water:

Though water is one simple inorganic matter, it plays vital role in the life of the living
organisms. Water forms 60-90% of the cellular pool. It forms 65% of human body. Water is
formed of H and O in the ratio of 2: 1. A high quantity of water is necessary for the solution
of ions and molecules and for the suspension of molecular aggregate within the cells. Water
is also essential to maintain many chemical reactions. In photosynthesis, the photolysis of
water is needed, without which the process of photosynthesis cannot run. Again due to high
surface tension and strong cohesion force, water easily rises through the wood vessel and
tracheids from root to the top of the tree. The major constituent of blood and protoplasm is
also water. Maintenance of osmotic relation in cells is impossible without water. Water
helps in sustaining the life processes as depicted below.

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2. Common Salt [Sodium Chloride [NaCl]:

Common salt is one of the micro molecules, which has an important role in maintaining the
cellular activities. Some of the uses of common salt are –
a. Sodium chloride forms 0.9% of our blood.
b. It maintains the red blood cells and helps to dissolve proteins.
c. Sodium ions are helpful to retain water in the body.
d. One of the major components of blood plasma is the chloride ion.
e. Formation of hydrochloric acid in the stomach for digestion is due to the presence of
chloride ions.
f. Sodium ions transport various substances across membranes and also help in the
conduction of nerve impulses.
g. Chloride ions help in transportation of carbon-di-oxide (C02) to and from cells.

3. Glucose:

Glucose (C6H1206) is the main product of photosynthesis and acts as nutrient for other
organisms. It is circulated to whole living world through the food chains and food web.
Normal glucose level of human blood is 60-100 mg/100 ml of blood and forms 0.1 % of
body weight.

Role of Some Macro-Biomolecules in Life:

Macro-biomolecules are large polymeric organic compounds of high molecular weight, which is
formed by interlinking of monomers by specific bonds in dehydration synthesis. These include
carbohydrates, fats, proteins, nucleic acids etc. They are helpful in a variety of purposes like
storage of energy, formation of structures that are physically necessary for the efficient
functioning of the protoplasmic system. How these are useful in living systems, is discussed
below:

1. Carbohydrates:

Starch, sugars, glucose etc. are some of the essential components for living beings. For
normal function of the body, constant level of glucose needs to be maintained in the blood.

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 It also builds cellulose which forms the bulk of the plant body. Brain cells also cannot work
without glucose and it furnishes most of the fuel required for cellular activity.

2. Fats:

Fats act as a store house and also important as a readily available source of energy.

3. Proteins:

Cellular life would be impossible without proteins for structural and functional reasons.
In every living cell, structural proteins as well as enzymes are present. Proteins are
normally used in cells as food stuff.

4. Nucleic acids:

These are polymers of nucleotides. These form 2% of the cellular pool. These include
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid). Main functions of nucleic
acids are-
a. DNA acts as genetic material.
b. RNA acts as genetic material in all plant viruses.
c. DNA controls synthesis of structural and functional proteins.
d. RNA helps in protein synthesis.

LIFE as an EXPRESSION OF ENERGY EXCHANGE PROCESS:

Energy is defined as capacity to do work. So the energy supply is essential for living organisms
as energy required for their growth, repair, locomotion, reproduction, development etc.
According to first law of thermodynamics (law of conservation of energy), the energy can
neither be created nor be destroyed. However energy can be transformed from one form to
another and the total amount of energy remains unchanged. During transformation it never goes
back to its source and in this process a small amount of energy is lost.

Energy may be present as potential (stored) energy or kinetic (expanded) energy. All the living
organisms depend upon the supply of free energy from outside which operates at constant
temperature and pressure. There are several forms of energy- thermal (heat), radiant (light),
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electrical (electricity), mechanical (steam driven turbine) and chemical (coal) which are
interconvertible. Therefore the life process can be expressed as an energy exchange process.

During work, the energy is either transformed or transferred or both.

1. Energy Transformation:

It is the phenomenon in which one form of energy is changed into another form of energy.
In photosynthesis, the primary source of energy is sun. It releases six types of
electromagnetic radiations (radio waves, infra red, visible light, ultra violet rays, x-ray and
y-rays). These radiations have radiant energy (kinetic energy). Apart (1-3%) of visible light
radiations, specially blue and red light radiations, is trapped by two Mg ions containing
green pigment chlorophyll of the plants (producers) and used in photosynthesis in which the
potential energy is stored as chemical energy in the chemical bonds of glucose. So, in
photosynthesis, radiant (kinetic) energy of sunlight is changed into chemical energy of
glucose. All the living organisms depend upon this transformation.

6CO2 + 6 H2O C6 H12O6 + 6O2

(Glucose)

Energy transformation in animal cells:

a. Chemical to electrical – nervous system
b. Light to electrical – retina of eye.
c. Chemical to osmotic – kidney and cell membrane.
d. Chemical to mechanical – muscles and cilia.
e. Sound to electrical – ear.
f. Chemical to radiant – luminescence.

2. Energy Transfer:

It involves the movement of energy from one source or area or substance to another in the
same form. The example of energy transfer is cellular respiration. It involves the oxidative
breakdown of glucose inside the mitochondria of aerobic plants and animals. The glucose is
enzymatically catabolised by stepped breakdown into CO2 and water and about 686 kcal. of
energy is released. A part of released energy is stored as chemical energy in high energy

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 bonds of ATP (adenosine triphosphate) formed by phosphorylation of ADP (adenosine
diphosphate)
ATP is known as energy-cheque or cellular currency as it is hydrolyzed to release chemical
energy for all the energy-dependent metabolic reactions, when required. Fritz Lipmann
proposed ATP cycle and is called as the father of ATP cycle.

3. Both. Energy Transfer and Energy Transformation:

a. During exercise: Exercise is a process which involves both energy transfer (chemical
energy of glucose, amino acids or fat is temporarily stored as chemical energy in ATP
molecules) and energy transformation (change of chemical energy of ATP into
electrical energy) for nerve impulse conduction and into mechanical energy for
muscle contraction.
b. During sleep: Sleep involves a number of undergone metabolic activities like
breathing, blood circulation, digestion, assimilation, growth, development, healing
and repair of body tissue. So sleep also involves both energy transfer and energy
transformation.
c. During healing of wounds: During healing of wounds cell respiration of nutrients
inside the mitochondria to form energy-rich ATP molecules (energy transfer) and
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 chemical energy of ATP used as chemical energy for biosynthesis of protoplasm and
growth of cells; as mechanical energy for movement of chromosomes during cell
division (energy transformation).
d. During crop ripening: Ripening of crop means both growth and maturation of seeds.
During growth, chemical energy of nutrients is released and partly stored as chemical
energy of ATP molecules by the process of cellular respiration (energy transfer). Here
ATP provides chemical energy for biosynthesis of new protoplasm and cell division
which helps in growth. Maturation of seeds involves energy transformation and
decrease in photosynthetic activity leading to stoppage of free energy leading to death
of plant tissues and crop plants.

ENTROPY IN LIVING SYSTEMS:

According to the second law of thermodynamics (also known as law of entropy), when a living
or non-living system is left to itself, it tends to increase its disorder or randomness (called
as entropy). So entropy is degree of disorder or randomness. In other words, the entropy is
unavailable and useless energy. Energy has the property to get transformed from higher energy
area to lower energy area for its uniform distribution. During the energy kinetics, as some energy
is lost in the form of heat, so there is increase in collision of particles which increases the
entropy. The term 'entropy' was first used by Rudolf Clausius (1851). Energy has the property
to get transferred from higher energy area to lower energy area for its uniform distribution.
During this movement, there is collision of particles leading to disorder. As energy is always
dispersed into unavailable heat energy, no transformation of energy is 100% efficient. So there is
a need of regular input of free energy which decreases the entropy. The living organisms obtain
this required free energy either from radiant energy by photosynthesis (green plants) or from
readymade food (animals). If there is no supply of free energy to a living being, its disorders or
entropy toes on increasing and finally leads to death. So entropy is maximum at the time of
death. Therefore in order to survive, the living organisms have to minimise entropy.

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OPEN AND CLOSED SYSTEM:

A living system which can exchange the materials with the environment is called open system.
In catabolic pathways certain waste materials like CO2 ammonia, uric acid etc. are formed along
with useful substances. As accumulation of these waste materials may be toxic to the body
tissues, these must be expelled out of the body. Living beings can take useful materials like food,
O2 etc. from the environment and can expel wastes out of body. On the other hand, in a non-
living system like stone, coal, table etc., there is no exchange of matter and no inflow or renewal
of energy from the environment, hence it is called closed system.

Difference between open and close system

Open System Closed System

1. Can exchange the materials with the 1. Cannot exchange the materials with the
environment. environment.
2. Regulatory mechanisms are present. 2. Regulatory mechanism is absent.
3. In dynamic and steady state. 3. In static state
4. Members are living 4. Members are non-living.

STEADY STATE:

Most of the living organisms take energy, oxygen, water and give out carbon-di-oxide,
nitrogenous wastes, heat etc. and thus maintain a balance between input and output. This system
of equilibrium is known as steady state. In this state the organisms make adjustments and they
remain intact and functioning. The steady state always exhibits by an open system.

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But in organisms the duration of the existence is always limited. Ultimate truth of the living
matter is death and the steady state may breakdown due to the non-functioning of the definite
organs which lead to disease state. This diseased state of the living organism is called Unsteady
State. Unsteady state may be of temporary nature or of permanent nature and finally the
organisms die.

A steady state is characterised by-

a. Rate of input matter and energy is equal to that of output.
b. Concentration of different components of a system remains constant.
c. Rate of formation of each component is exactly equal to its utilization.

HOMEOSTASIS:

The tendency to maintain a constant internal environment in a living system is called

homeostasis (homeo=same, stasis=state). The term 'homeostasis' was first coined by Walter B.
Cannon in, 1932. It is the most important adaptation of all living organisms. All ecosystems are
capable of self-maintenance and self-regulation. A good homeostatic control comes only after a
period of evolutionary Adjustments.

Following examples from everyday life are regulated by homeostatic mechanism

1. If our body is exposed to the cold, heat is generated inside the body and temperature is
maintained. On the other hand, if the body is exposed to heat, sweating occurs,
evaporation of which brings down the temperature of the body.
2. Mammals maintain 0.1 % sugar in blood plasma. An increase in blood sugar to a higher
level (after heavy meal) stimulates removal of the sugar from the blood by triggering the
synthesis of sugar (glycogen) in the liver. A drop in sugar level has the opposite effect
and that triggers the breakdown of glycogen to release sugar into blood once again.
3. At the time of playing, running or any type of hard working our heart beats increase as
our tissues require more blood supply at that time and heart supplies more blood
indicated by increased beats.
4. Increased sweating, vomiting, loose motion is the causes of the loss of body fluids and
kidneys conserve water and sodium so that dehydration does not occur.

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 5. Due to the activities of pituitary gland, thyroid gland and hypothalamus, the hormones in
the body are found in a constant level.
6. If one potted plant is kept in a dark place, it will move towards the right direction of
proper exposure of light. It is due to internal regulatory mechanism and this is the
immediate response to the stimulation (light). But long term adjustment leads to
adaptation which is also one of the homeostatic mechanisms.
7. When a minor cut and bleeding occurs, a blood clot is formed. It seals off the area so that
repair could begin.
8. When we enter a photographic dark room or a darkened cinema hall from bright, nothing
is visible for some time. Within few seconds our eyes adjust by regulating the size of
pupil and you are able to see in the dim light.
9. During hot summer days we feel thirstier because our body loses water by perspiration.
In winters, our body loses less water so we feel less thirsty.

SELF-DUPLICATION:

Self duplication is a remarkable characteristic of living organisms. At the end of the life span all
living beings die due to ageing, disease, natural calamity and other reasons. At the mature age
every organism increases its population by reproduction. Continuity of race is maintained
through reproduction. Offspring of one generation is exclusively identical to that of its parents.
This is due to the transmission of heredity and DNA is the carrier of heredity characters. DNA is
located in the gene, which is found in the chromosome. DNA has the capacity to duplicate and
by applying this capacity DNA perpetuate the forms of life. All the cellular activities are
controlled by DNA and the heredity characters are attached to the DNA in a sequence. All the
information of every life process is carried by DNA. Later works of life process like formation of
gametes, development of zygote, and formation of embryo into adult are according to the
information located in the DNA. DNA is duplicated at the time of meiotic division in such a way
that the offspring DNA gets exact replica of the parent.

This type of duplication is found only in higher organisms where sexual reproduction is found.
In lower grade of organisms where reproduction process is either asexual or vegetative, the type
of duplication is different. Whatever may be the duplication type, but the ultimate goal of the
duplication in cellular organism is to maintain a never ending life process.

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ADAPTATION:

The useful structural, functional or behavioural changes developed in a living organism

over long period of time so as to adjust itself according to a particular environment are
called adaptations. It is an inherent quality of all living beings. The variations in response to the
changed environment are gradual and very slow. It takes years to produce a visible impact of
variation. One group of changes are inherited to generations in a way helping organism to
survive in that particular environment. If an organism fails to develop these variations, the
species dies out and becomes extinct. Therefore, adaptation in response to change has a great
evolutionary significance.

Types: On the basis of nature and role in evolution the adaptations are classified into two
categories. (a) Short term adaptations and (b) long term adaptations.

1. Short Term Adaptations:

These are temporary morphological or physiological change developed in living

organism in response to temporary environmental changes. Here different
members of same species show different degree of adaptations. In these, DNA is not
changed so these play no role in evolution.
Example:
a. Skin colour is different in different human being due to difference in the amount of
melanin which is developed in response to UV-radiations of sunlight e.g. Tanning of
skin. Melanin absorbs UV radiations to protect from sunburns etc.
b. Dormant seeds and hibernating animals suspend their vital activities until favorable
environmental conditions become available.
c. Plants show adaptations in response to light and gravity, stem moves in response to light
and roots move in response to gravity.
d. Mangrove plants are used to breathe through respiratory roots to facilitate gaseous
exchange when roots become submerged by saline water during tide.

2. Long Term Adaptations:

These types of adaptations are permanent and inheritable which ultimately

result in variations. These may be of structural and functional types.
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a. Structural adaptations:
i. In birds, the shape and size of the beaks are different and often indicate the kind
of food taken by a particular type of bird. The feet of birds are also of various
types like the beaks. Studying these organs, we can form a general idea about the
mode of living of a bird. In sparrow, perching foot is a device by which the toes
are firmly held around the twig automatically. It can even sleep while perched on
twigs without the risk of falling down.
ii. Strong tail of kangaroo helps it to use as a fifth limb to support the body weight.
iii. In the xerophytic plants (cactus), leaves are modified into spines to avoid excess
transpiration and stems are succulent to store water. The stem performs the
function of the leaf due to the presence of green pigment chlorophyll.
iv. To ensure cross pollination, flowers are so constituted as to attract insects which
transport pollen.
v. In apes, thumbs are in the line with the other fingers. They cannot perform all the
functions due to opposition of thumb. In man, thumb is set at a right angle to the
plan of other fingers during evolution to perform functions like writing, holding,
picking up very small objects ete.
vi. In horse, deer, cheeta and such other animals have modifications of their limb
bone accordingly as they require swift running.
vii. In birds and other animals which have aerial mode of life composed of light and
streamlined body, hollow bones, air Sacs etc. as these characters are due to long
term adaptation.
viii. In Ranunculus, Limnophylla and other aquatic plants, heterophylly is one special
adaption in which submerged leaves are highly dissected and floating leaves are
more or less round in structure.
ix. In Indian dead leaf butterfly, twig caterpillar and Ariseama plant, mimicry is the
adaptation type to avoid predators.
x. Complex organised society with division of labour is found in honey bee and in
some other insects.

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Functional Adaptations:

As like structural adaptations, functional adaptations are also equally essential for a living
organism to survive and reproduce within the limits of its environment. But the numbers of
functional adaptations are very few. Some of the functional adaptations are –
a. Termites have protozoa in their digestive tracts which produce enzymes that hydrolyse
cellulose to utilizable sugars.
b. Presence of complex and co-ordinated enzyme system of the gastrointestinal tract in most
of the vertebrate is the result of many adaptations to different types of food.
c. Bacterial population get diffusible food materials from surrounding medium which are
degraded by the digestive enzyme produced by bacteria and pass out to the medium.
Many structural and functional adaptations are closely associated with its environment that the
whole activity must be analysed from the view point of overall behavior and not as a single
adaptation.

Differences between short term and long term adaptations

Short term adaptations Long term adaptations

1. These are temporary changes. 1. These are permanent changes.

2. These are developed in response to 2. These are developed in response to
temporary changes in the environment. permanent changes in the environment.
3. These are not inheritable. 3. These are inheritable.

4. DNA is not changed. 4. DNA is changed

5. No role in evolution. 5. Important role in evolution.

DEATH - A POSITIVE CONSEQUENCE OF LIFE:

Ageing is a natural phenomenon of all living organisms and for natural death ageing is a
prerequisite condition. Ageing can be defined as the progressive deterioration in structure and
function of all organs, tissues and cells as they grow older.

Duration of life is different from organism to organism. While may fly lives only for one day,
tortoise for 200 years and red wood tree (Sequoia) for 3,000 to 4,000 years. Again the life span
in female is longer than the male.

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Death is a natural consequence and it has some positive effects. These are-

i. Death is an important phenomenon as it maintains population balance. This is necessary

because of the limitation of food and space. The elements like carbon, hydrogen, sulphur,
phosphorus of dead organism's get freed in the atmosphere due to the decomposing
activity of microbes.
ii. Equilibrium in nature is maintained by death and reproduction to check the over
population.
iii. Dead cells perform an important role in maintaining living processes. Dead tissues like
heart wood and cork in plants and nails, horns and feathers help in support, strength etc.
and protection of our skin is also made up of dead cells which protect the body from
harmful micro-organisms and prevent the loss of body fluids.
iv. Another dead tissue in plants is xylem, which performs the work of conduction and
transportation of water. Cross walls of xylem vessel dissolve to form long channels
which facilitate easy conduction.
v. Sclerenchymatous tissues when get maturity, lose their contents and acquire thick walls
to provide mechanical support to the plant body due to which the plant does not get
uprooted.
vi. The dead embryonic cells provide nutritive materials to other growing embryonic cells
(endosperm cells and nuceller cells) during development of the embryo in plants.
vii. The cuticle of the leaves which is composed of dead materials provides mechanical
support to the leaves and prevents transpiration.
viii. Upper part of hair is dead. Hair traps a thin layer of air which helps in homeothermy.
ix. Nails, claws, horns etc. are dead and protective structures of animals.

Characteristics of Death:

Death is the permanent breakdown and finally stopping of vital functions of the body, specially
heart beat and respiration. Following are some of the characteristics of death:
i. It is the last event in the degenerative processes of ageing.
ii. Death involves wide spread cell breakdown and cell death.
iii. Death is an inherent part of life cycle of an organism.
iv. Death of an organism involves the death of body cells. But all the body cells do not die at
the same rate. Last body cells to die are brain cells.
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Causes of Death:

There are two main causes of death. They are –

i. Gradual breakdown of immune system of body with advancing age due to degeneration
of thymus endocrine gland.
ii. Sudden stoppage of blood circulation to the vital organs of the body like heart, brain and
lungs.

Significance of Death:

In the life cycle of living organisms, Death is an important stage. Why ageing occurs in cells and
why do cells stop functioning is not still clearly understood. Stoppage of all mechanical and vital
functioning which cannot be revived again is death. But there are differences in between clinical
death and biological death. When a man is clinically dead, still almost all the body cells remain
alive for several hours. Transplantation of tissues and organs may be carried out immediately
after the clinical death.
There is no ageing in bacteria. When they attain maturity, they undergo binary fusion and give
rise to two daughter cells by each bacterium. The daughter cells on maturity again behave as
their parents. Therefore, bacteria may be called immortal. But in practice it is not actually true.
When there is overcrowding of bacterial cells, certain bacteria produce some toxins which cause
the death of others. Amoeba reproduces by means of binary fission and daughter cells also
reproduced by same manner and this process go on. Unlike bacteria, it has been observed that
amoeba die after a definite number of binary fissions.

DIVERSITY of LIFE:

Nature is unique in manifestation. We all see the beauty of nature in her diverse creation of
living organisms (plants, animals and microorganisms) amongst the living domain, apart from
the non living creatures of nature. Variation forms the basis of natural biodiversity. In simple
words, the meaning of biodiversity (Bio=Life, diversity = variation) encompasses all the
members of plants, animals, microorganisms and the complex ecosystem surrounding then on
earth. In fact, biodiversity is a complex and balanced net work of different species, which are
mutually dependent upon each other. We completely dependent on the bio-diversity, for the
supply of food, shelter, fibre, fuel and medicine. Biodiversity is a condition for the long term
sustainability of the environment.
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Biodiversity is an abbreviated ward for “Biological-Diversity” which was first put forward by
Norse and Mc Manus (1980). The contracted form “Biodiversity” was coined by W.C. Rosen in
1985 during the first planning meeting of the National Forum on Biological Diversity held at
Washington DC, USA.

There are about 2 million species of living organisms in this world and many more yet to
indentify. These species are immensely diverse. They exhibit variations in shape, size,
appearance, internal structure, physiological processes, adaptations to environment and
reproduction processes. Some are microscopic and some are gigantic. They live in varied type of
habitats ranging from high mountain to bottom of the sea in one hand and from polar region to
the hot Africa on the other. Even in one sq. mtr. area, there are many different types of
organisms. Man has always tried to understand this diversity and to make some meaning out of
it. Gradual evolution is the main cause of these varieties of life forms. In future many more
variations may be evolved if these are not destroyed.

Out of the 2 million living organisms, half of these are found in underexplored tropical rain
forests of the world. These forests occupy only about 8% of the total land area of the earth but a
rich diversity of life forms. A large number of organisms is suspected to exist under the Ocean
water of tropics. Among the 2 millions of living organisms, more than 1 million species from
animal. Again among different types of animals, insects constitute the largest group of about
7,50,000 species.

As per the Global Diversity Assessment Report up till now more than 3,92,700 species of
flowering plants have been identified in the world. Out of these 49,000 species representing
about 12% of the recorded world’s flora have been identified in Indian. Some of the areas of
diversity among living organisms are discussed below in brief.

1. Form: Animals are of different forms like spherical, ovoid, cylindrical, vase-like, ribbon
like, star like, spindle like, disc like or irregular. Form of the plant body varies a good
deal even in the same species. This is particularly true in case of higher plants and it
makes them asymmetrical organisms.
2. Size: There is a great diversity in size of the organisms. Some organisms are so small that
they cannot be seen by the naked eye (Bacteria) and some are very large like blue whale.

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 3. Colour: All colours are represented in the organisms. Flowers show an endless variety of
colours.
4. Habitat: Life exists in all the type of habitat. Some are found in extreme cold conditions
and some are in extreme hot conditions. Some are in top of the mountain and some are at
the bottom of the sea. Organisms may be found in terrestrial, aquatic and in saline water
also. Terrestrial habitats may be xerophytes, mesophyte, halophyte etc.
5. Habit: Organisms may be free living parasite, saprophyte and carnivorous, on the other
hand some live with mutual cooperation with others (symbionts). Among plants, habit
may be herb, under shrub, shrub, tree, climber creeper etc.
6. Structure: Most of the organisms have membrane bound nucleus (Eukaryote) others do
not (Prokaryote). Except Cyanobacteria, all other prokaryotes are unicellular. Certain
eukaryotes are also unicellular and some are living in colonies. Multicellular eukaryotes
normally have specialized tissues which may be organized into organs and organ
systems.
7. Physiological process: Diversity is equally marked in the physiological process such as
nutrition, respiration, excretion, irritability, reproduction, growth and development,
movement etc.

TAXONOMY and ITS AIMS:

The rich variety of innumerable living organisms surrounding us is incomprehensible. So it is

almost impossible for anyone to have adequate knowledge about each individual object.
However, if they are grouped in some convenient means, the study would become much easier,
because the characters of a particular group would apply to all the individuals of that group.
Without a suitable method of classification, the study of various organisms would be very
difficult. Man has a wonderful capacity to discriminate. He often tries to know them by using
certain attributes that are common to a large number of objects. In other words, he classifies
them into manageable groups. According to Davis and Heywood (1963), 'classification is a
natural occupation of man, recognition one of his most necessary pastime.' A biologist is
interested in studying a particular organism must know his field of study. It is necessary for him
to identify it, have a name for communication and know the group to which the organism
belongs. In fact, these are the three aims of taxonomy. Taxonomy is basic to other sciences and
at the same time dependent on them. The literary meaning of the term taxonomy is 'lawful
arrangement'. It is the combination of two Greek words, 'taxis' means arrangement and 'nomous'

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means law or rule. Thus taxonomy means classification of plants following certain rules or
principles.

The students of taxonomy sometimes do not think about the fundamental differences among
systematics, taxonomy and classification. G.S. Simpson (1961) analysed each of the terms
separately and gave a comprehensive definition of each term. He defined systematics as the
scientific study of the kinds and diversity of organisms, if any and all relationship among them.
According to him, taxonomy is the theoretical study of classification, including its bases,
principles, procedures and rules; classification is the ordering of organisms into groups (or sets)
on the basis of their relationship.

Distinguish between Taxonomy and Systematics:

Taxonomy Systematics

1. It is the theory and practice of 1. It is not only the traditional activities of

identification, nomenclature and taxonomy but also the investigation of such things
classification. as evolution, speciation natural variation,
reproductive biology and a number of biological
phenomena.

Principles of Classification:

Different taxonomists tried to formulate different principles at the time of preparation of their
system of classification from time to time. The principles for earlier system of classifications
were very simple, such as habit, medicinal and other uses of organisms and a set of easily
observable characters. Classification of this type is purely artificial. However, attempts to

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classify different organisms gradually shifted from purely artificial systems to natural and
phylogenetic ones by the end of the nineteenth century. Thus, with the shifting of functions,
there has been a change in principles also. It can be said that the principles of taxonomy are
concerned primarily with the criteria employed in classification. However, certain basic
principles have been formulated by Cronquist (1968), which are given below-

1. Taxa are properly established on the basis of multiple correlations of characters.

2. Importance of a character is determined by how well it correlates with other characters.
The first principle states the importance of correlation of characters. This is probably the
most important principle for the preparation of one classification. It implies that no
character of a taxon should be considered singly for the establishment of its relationship
with the other taxa but it should always be considered along with other characters.
Secondly, the characters chosen should exhibit maximum correlation with other
characters. The importance of a character depends upon the degree of correlation. A
character with no obvious correlation with other characters is often taken to be an
anomalous one and it is usually not taxonomically important. Whatever may be the
principle, the ultimate object of classification is to arrange different organisms in such a
way as to give us an idea about their phylogenetic relationships, i.e., the sequence of their
origin and evolution from simpler, earlier and more primitive types to more complex,
more recent and more advanced types in different periods of the planet. An ideal system
of classification should not only indicate the actual genetic relationship but should also be
within a reasonable limit of convenience for practical purposes.

Aristotle : Father of Biology

Theophrastus : Father of Botany

Carolous Linnaeus : Father of Taxonomy

Hierarchical Categories and Taxonomic Units:

A hierarchy is a systematic framework of classification with sequence of groups at different

levels in which each group except the lowest includes one or more subordinate groups. These
groups are recognised as species, genus, family, order, class, division and kingdom. Any group
of the hierarchial classification is known as a taxon (plural-taxa). In a classification, species is
the smallest taxon and kingdom is the largest taxon. All the taxa are arranged from species to
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kingdom in ascending order in a classification and these taxa of classification are established by
the rules of nomenclature. The hierarchy of taxa can be defined as follows with examples of
Plant and animal.

Hierarchial Category
Hierarchial Taxa
Potato Man
Kingdom Plantae Animalia
Division/Phylum Spermatophyta Chordata
Class Dicotyledonae Mammalia
Order Polemoniales Primate
Family Solanaccae Hominidae
Genus Solanum Homo
Species Indicum sapiens

The above mentioned taxa can again be divided into sub-kingdom, sub-division or subphylum,
sub-class, super-order, sub-order, sub-family, sub-genus, sub-species, variety, forma and clone.
Each of the above mentioned taxon is called a taxonomic unit which is discussed below.
a. Species: It is the basic unit or taxon of classification, subordinate to genus. In most of the
cases species denotes group of closely similar individuals breeding among themselves but
not with others. In other words, species may be defined as 'the perennial succession of
similar individuals perpetuated by generations'. Therefore a species is composed to
similar individuals which resemble one another closely in morphological characters and
which have descended from a common ancestor. The specific epithet is always spelled
with a small initial letter. For example, Pyrus malus, Felis domestica, where malus and
domestica are two specific epithet; Pyrus and Felis are genetic names.

There are several concepts of species which are formulated by different taxonomist.

Species Concepts:

a. Morphological Species: According to this concept, species is defined strictly on the

possession, by their members, of certain phenotypical characters, not possessed by
members of other species. The author of this concept was Carolus Linnaeus.

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 b. Biological Species: According to it, species is defined as 'individuals of population
which under natural conditions are potentially capable of interbreeding. ' This concept
was first developed by Mayr (1942).
c. Genetic Species: This concept is developed after the formulation of the theory of
evolution. This concept means all the members of a species interbreed among themselves
but are reproductively isolated from other such groups due to genetic differences.

Genus:

It is next higher taxon above the species, composed of one or more species. A genus (plural-
genera) can be defined as the grouping or assemblage of related species which resemble one
another in more characters in common than they resemble one another species. In general, the
genus is recognisable by one or more important characters of gross morphology. Generic name is
always a noun and is spelled with a capital initial letter. The names of genera may be masculine,
feminine or neuter in gender. The examples of genera are Musa, Felis etc. where Musa includes
all banana plants and Felis includes all cat like animals.

Family:

It is the readily recognisable taxon composed of one or more related genera. The similarities
among the genera in a family are much greater than their differences. The name of a family
always ends with the suffix-aceae e.g., Brassicaceae, Rubiaceae, Poaceae etc. The name of a
family is a plural adjective used as a substantive. If the family is large, it is divided into sub-
families.

Order: It is the major taxon, stands above the family but below the class. An order is composed
of one or more than one phylogenetically related families. The name of an order ends with the
siffix- ales e.g., Magnoliales, Arecales, Passiflorales etc. A few exceptions of this general rule is
not uncommon e.g., Liliflorae.

Class: It is the next higher taxon, which includes one or more than one orders. The orders which
are included in a class must have some common distinguishing characters. Often larger classes
divided into some sub-classes.

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Division or phylum:

In taxonomic hierarchy division or phylum is the largest unit which includes more than one
class. It includes individuals of diversified nature which have some similarities. Sometimes
division or phylum divided into sub-divisions or sub-phylum.

Kingdom: It is the highest and ultimate taxon of living organisms. In older system of
classifications, there are only two kingdoms – plant kingdom and animal kingdom. But in
recent system of classifications all the living organisms are divided into five kingdoms-

a. Kingdom Monera: Includes unicellular organisms which have prokaryotic cells.

b. Kingdom Protista: Includes unicellular organisms having eukaryotic cells.
c. Kingdom Plantae: Includes cell wall and vacuolated eukaryotic cell bearing organisms
which have photosynthetic pigments.
d. Kingdom Fungi: Members devoid of photosynthetic pigments and having eukaryotic
cells with definite cell wall.
e. Kingdom Animalia: Members have multicellular eukaryotic cells without any wall and
devoid of photosynthetic pigments.

Some important books on taxonomy:

Books Authors
Genera Plantarum Carolus Linnaeus & Bentham and Hooker
Materia Media Dioscorides
Historia Plantarum Theophrastus
Flora of British India J.D. Hooker
Species Plantarum Carolus Linnaeus
Flora of Assam U.N. Kanjilal et. al.
Charak Samhita Charaka
Philosophia Botenica Carolus Linnaeus
Bengal Plants David Prain
Phylogency of Flowering Plants John Hutchinhson

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The hierarchy of taxa in traditional form may be described as follows :
(a) Kingdom
(b) Division or Phylum
(c) Class
(d) Order
(e) Family
(f) Genus
(g) Species

Some terms you should know

It is the theory and practice of identification, nomenclature

Taxonomy :
and classification of different kinds of living organisms.

It is the theory and practice of identification, the scientific

study of nomenclature, and classification of living beings on
Systematics :
the basis of evolutionary relationships. Systematics and
taxonomy are complementary disciplines.

It is the determination of correct place of an organism in a

Identification : previously established plan of classification based on overall
similarities and differences with other organisms.

It is the study of diverse forms of living beings by placing

Classification : them into small or large groups on the basis of similarities and
differences in a systematic manner.

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 It is a collection of dried and pressed plant specimens,
arranged according to a given system of classification and
Herbarium : available for ready reference. The biggest Indian herbarium is
Central National Herbarium (CNH) at Sibpur (Kolkata). It
holds more than 14 lakh specimens.

It provides convenient way for easy identification of an

Taxonomic key :
organism by applying diagnostic or distinguishing characters.

It is a group of individuals in living beings which resembles

Species :
closely in structure as well as functions.

Any group of hierarchial classification eg. Species, Genus,

Taxon :
Family etc.

Systematics from the earliest times to the time of Linnaeus is

Classical and New
: called classical systematics and that of post-Linnaean period
systematics
as new systematics.

NOMENCLATURE:

Nomenclature may be defined as the system of naming of any object, particularly those of
biological origin. Man has been interested in plants since prehistoric times and in all nations and
tribes, names have been given to plants in their own language. Unfortunately, for the use of
common names no uniform accord could be attained. Often the same object has several common
names in different organisms. Thus the common names are quite indefinite and are restricted to
the people of one language or even one region of a country. This necessitated the need for
assigning scientific names for each organism. The earliest scientific names were polynomials,
composed of several words which formed a more or less neat description of the object.

Carolus Linnaeus (1707-1778), the great Swedish naturalist and professor of University of
Upasala, evolved one new system of naming object. The system was proposed in the year 1753
known as binomial system of nomenclature which involves the Latin naming of the organisms.
According to this nomenclatural process each name consists of two parts-the first part refers to
the genus or the generic name and the second to the species or the specific name, e.g., the
botanical name of mango plant is Mangifera indica in which Mangifera is a generic name and
indica refers to the species. The first letter of the generic name is to be written in capital and the
specific name in small letters. The name of the workers who first described the plant is also
written in an abbreviated form after the specific name e.g., Mangifera indica Linn., in which
'Linn.' refers to Linnaeus, who first described the mango plant. All the rules regarding the

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naming of plants approved by International Botanical Congress and the rules are embodied in
International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (lCBN) and for the names of animals
controlled by International Zoological Congress which is embodied in International Code of
Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN). Most of the rules of zoological nomenclature are same to
that of botanical nomenclature. But both the processes are independent.

Rules of Nomenclature of Plants and Animals:

There are about 2 million plants and animals in this world and their descriptions and
nomenclature given by different taxonomists in the different corners of the world create a chaotic
condition in taxonomy. In many times synonym (different name applied to same plant or animal)
or homonym (same name for different plants and animals) are applied. To overcome all the
problems two permanent bodies have been constituted for plants and animals, namely
International Botanical Congress and International Zoological Congress respectively to
formulate the codes and rules of nomenclature. Rules and codes of nomenclature in botany were
accepted in 1867 and further reformed from time to time and the last modification was accepted
at Melbourne, Australia in 2011. The reformed rules and codes for zoology were accepted in
1901 and were further reformed from time to time. Although there are some differences in the
nomenclatural process of plants and animals, some similarities are also there. Following are
some of the rules for botany.

1. The same scientific name must not be used for both plant and animal.
2. Names of plants and animals should be of binomial nature, except certain special cases
where trinomial nomenclature is valid.
3. The names of two genera must not be the same and the names of the species belonging to
the same genus should not be identical.
4. The application of names of taxonomic group is determined by means of nomenclatural
types.
5. Each taxonomic group with a particular circumscription, position and rank can bear only
one correct name, the earliest that is in accordance with the rules, except in specific
cases.
6. Scientific names should be written in Latin or derivatives of Latin and in italics. The first
letter of the generic name should be in capital and the specific name must be written in
small letters.
7. The nomenclature of a taxonomic group is based upon the priority of publication.
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 8. The name of the author who first described the organism must be written in an
abbreviated form after the specific name.
9. A name cannot be given twice.
10. Name should indicate the feature of the organism and the name should be easily
pronounceable.
11. When a new species is established, the type species must be mentioned.
12. Correct and original spelling of a name should be maintained.

Advantages of the Scientific Name:

1. Biological names have been derived mostly from Latin language. This language is now
dead. Hence, there is no chance of change in meaning of their words
2. Names are same all over the world.
3. They are uniformly binomial.
4. They are definite and accepted universally.
5. They are descriptive.
6. All newly discovered plants and animals can be named and described easily.
7. They are regulated by constituted authority.
8. They indicate relationship of the species with others placed in the same genus.
9. An incorrect or inappropriate name can be easily set right.
10. Each kind of organism is given a single scientific name. This not only minimises the
number of names but also eliminates the likely confusion of multiple naming.

Some interesting facts about taxomony

 Hippocrates (462-370 BC) is known as the father of medicine.

 Homology is the relationship of comparable structures in different organisms.
 Species is the basic unit of taxonomy.
 The fossil study shows that earlier simpler organisms gradually evolved into complex
ones. The earliest fossils, bout 3.1 billion years old, resemble the existing bacteria.
 Water lily has 81 Dutch names, 44 French names and 15 English names.
 Kingdom is the highest category of taxonomic unit.
 Classification is as old as the power of speech.

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UTILITY OF SYSTEMATICS:

The knowledge of systematics is very much helpful to mankind. There are about two million
identified species of plants and animals and several more yet to identify. During the last three
decades a vast progress have been observed in systematics. Many interdisciplinary subjects like
chemotaxonomy, cytotaxonomy, ecological systematics, numerical taxonomy etc. have been
come into lime light recently. A systematist or taxonomist maintains the records of flora and
fauna. Record is preserved in the form of herbarium for plants. A herbarium is the collection of
plants that have been dried, pressed, preserved on thick paper sheets and arranged in accordance
with any accepted system of classification for future use. Each specimen must bear the name of
the specimen, place and date of the collection, name of the collector along with a short
description of the plant. A sound knowledge of taxonomy is required for the scientist working in
other fields of biology. The multiple role of systematics or utility of systematics can be described
as follows.

Some interesting facts to remember

 Biological classification is not rigid and is subject to modification as more and more is
learnt about organisms.
 The evolutionary history of any group of organisms is termed is phylogeny.
 According to binomial nomenclature, every organism must have a scientific name with
generic and specific part.
 Ostrich egg is the largest eukaryotic cell.
 Life appeared on earth about 3.5 billion years ago.
 Insects cover the largest group with more than 75,000 species in animals.
 Binomial system of nomenclature was first used by Linnaeus.
 Species change slowly over generations.
 There are three major systems of classification; artificial, natural and phylogenetic.

1. It provides necessary information required to other branches of biology. For example, an

ecologist working on soil conservation can select various plants for acting as soil binders.
Same is true for other branches of biology.
2. It provides us knowledge of diversity of plants and animals on the earth. It is also helpful
in understanding the evolution which occurs among living organisms by knowing the
distinction, affinities, habit and habitat.
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 3. It helps to identify economically important plants which are selected for breeding works
in the country to increase the yield and for the disease resistant varieties.
4. For plant protection, exact identification of harmful pests is essential.
5. It helps in the study of harmful, disease producing pests or parasites in controlling the
epidemic diseases.
6. It provides information in applied sciences like agriculture, horticulture, floriculture,
medicine, veterinary sciences etc.
7. To preserve wild life, identification of the organisms is necessary and systematic helps in
this work.

TAXONOMIC AIDS:

Taxonomic studies of living organisms (eg. identification, nomenclature, classification) are

useful in agriculture, forestry and in various industries. These studies are also needed to know
our bioresources and their diversity. Identification of different species and their taxonomic
details can be obtained by laboratory works as well as field studies. The information gathered
about the species is stored after collection and preservation for verification if needed later on.
Herbaria, botanical gardens, museums, zoological parks, etc. are some of the aids which help in
taxonomic studies. Some of the taxonomic aids are discussed briefly.

1. Herbarium:

A herbarium is a store house of plant specimens collected from far and wide places,
mounted on appropriate sheets, arranged according to some known system of
classification and kept in pigeon holes which are available for reference or study.

Most of the famous herbaria of the world originated from the botanical gardens. The First
herbarium was set up at Pisa in Italy by a professor of Botany Luca Ghini. His students bound
the paper sheets having plant specimens mounted on them into book volumes, and spread the art
of herbarium throughout Europe. Linnaeus started storing the paper sheets with plants mounted
on them, a practice followed even today.

Major herbaria: Some important herbaria of India and world are listed below.

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Indian Herbaria:

Sl. No. of Year of

Name of Herbarium Place
No. sheets Establishment
1. Central National Herbarium Kolkata 14,00,000 1793

2. Forest Research Institute Herbarium Dehradun 3,00,000 1816

Botanical Survey of India, Southern

3. Coimbatare 2,00,000 1874
Circle.

Botanical Survey of India, Eastern

4. Shillong 1,00,000 1956
Circle.

5. National Botanic Garden Herbarium Lunknow 1,00,000 1948

World Herbaria:
Year of
Sl. No. of
Name of Herbarium Place Establishmen
No. sheets
t
1. Royal Botanic Garden, Kew London, U.K 65,00,000 1853

VL. Komarov Botanical

2. Leningrad, Russia 50,00,000 1823
Institute

3. New York Botanic Garden New York, U.S.A 30,00,000 1891

4. U.S. National Museum Washington, 30,00,000 1868

5. National History Museum Chicago, U.S.A. 25,00,000 1748

Importance of Herbaria:

A modern herbarium serves many valuable functions

1. Large herbaria provide basic material for study of flora and vegetation of different places
or region at one place.
2. It is the storehouse of collection including the valuable type specimens. The herbaria are
an aid for all kinds of taxonomic research.
3. It serves as an aid in teaching botany. Dried specimen is available all the time as
compared to the fresh plant which may or may not be available. It helps in identifying the
newly collected specimens.
4. It is the place of safe custody for type specimens. Type specimens, on the description of
which the species names are established, are kept in safe rooms with limited access.

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 5. It serves as a source for research of new genetic material for improvement of cultivated
stock.
6. Herbarium specimens may be used as a source of material for anatomy, playnology,
cytology, ecology, chemistry, molecular biology, pharmacognosy etc.
7. Seeds of the herbarium specimens can be used for germination in case the plant become
extinct in field applying modern technology.
8. It helps in development of computer data base on plants and maintains active links to
international network.
9. It provides keys for the preparation of modern system of classification.
10. The material in the herbarium remains a permanent record of flora of those regions and in
certain cases, where, natural catastrophes or other factors have totally destroyed the
vegetation, the collections in the herbarium provide evidence of what once existed there.

Kinds of Herbaria:

Depending upon the interests of the organization, herbariums are of different kinds.
1. The herbaria of organizations like Botanical Survey of India contain all collections from
any part of the world.
2. The institutions, which are interested in drugs and medicines, have herbaria, which
include specimens of plants of known medicinal properties.
3. The herbaria of universities and colleges generally contain specimens only of interest for
teaching or those included in the syllabus and research.
4. The herbaria of agricultural colleges and universities include specimens of crop plants
and weeds of cultivated fields.

BOTANICAL GARDENS:

Botanical gardens are those where living plants of different types, collected from different
parts of the world, are grown in a scientific and systematic manner. They are different from
public parks and gardens. Whereas parks and gardens are primarily centers of aesthetic beauty
and recreation, botanical gardens primarily serve scientific functions, like germplasm banks,
plant introduction, research and training in many taxonomic, horticultural and other botanical
disciplines. Well planned botanical gardens are also centres of aesthetic attractions. Many
botanical gardens have large glass-houses, lakes and ornamental flower beds. Often, herbaria,
laboratories and libraries are also associated with botanical gardens.
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History of Botanical Gardens:

The history of gardens dates back to our ancient Indian history, where such gardens have been
mentioned in our epics like Mahabharata, Ramayana etc. Kings and emperors grew gardens
around their palaces for aesthetic beauty. In other parts of the world, the Hanging Gardens of
Babylon are considered to be the most ancient wonders.

It was during the 16th century, that the first botanical garden of the world was established by an
Italian Professor of Botany, Luca Ghini (1490-1556 A.D.) at Pisa, Italy in 1543. After this,
thousands of botanical gardens were established in the world. Out of these about 800 important
gardens are documented in the International Directory of Botanical Gardens published by
Henderson in 1983.

Major Botanical Gardens of the World:

1. Botanic Garden, Padua, Italy: Established by University of Padua in the year 1545.
This garden functions in the introduction of plants in different parts of Europe. It covers
an area of about 20,000 square meters.
2. Royal Botanic Garden, Kew: It is situated at Kew, London in the year 1760. It is one of
the largest botanical gardens in the world today.
3. New York Botanical Garden: It was founded in 1801. It displays about 13,000 plant
species.
4. Botanic Garden of Leiden University, Leiden, Netherlands: This garden was
established in 1587.
5. Botanical Garden of Upasala, Sweden: It was founded in 1655 by O.J. Rudbeck.
Linnaeus worked in this garden from 1741 to 1777.
6. Botanical Garden, Berlin: This garden was established in 1646 and is considered as one
of the important gardens of the world. Adlof Engler, Eichler and other botanists were
associated with this garden.

Major Botanical Gardens of India:

1. Indian Botanic Garden, Kolkata: It was founded by Lt. Col. Robert Kyd in 1787.
William Roxburgh, N. Wallich, W Griffith, David Prain etc. Worked here. This garden is
maintained by Botanical Survey of India.
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 2. National Botanic Garden, Lucknow: It was established in 1789. This garden is
maintained by CSIR and it is the centre for botanical and horticultural research.
3. Botanic Garden of the Forest Research Institute, Dehradun: It was established in the
year 1934. This garden became the attraction of the scientists like N.L. Bor, Raizada,
Parker etc. The green house of the garden includes orchids, ferns, cactus etc.
4. Botanic Garden, Sahranpur: This garden was established by Muslim ruler Zabita Khan
in the year 1817. It is now working as Horticultural Research Station of the U.P.
Government.
5. Lloyd Botanic Garden, Darjeeling, W.B.: This garden was developed by Sir Ashley
Eden in 1902. The main attractions of the garden are the large collection of exotic
conifers, the living fossil (Ginkgo biloba) and glass houses with orchids.

Role of Botanical Gardens:

The main functions of botanical gardens are summarized as below:
1. The living collections of plants provide basis for modern taxonomic studies.
2. Botanical gardens provide adequate facilities for plant introduction and acclimatization
work.
3. Different botanical gardens of the world have been responsible for commercial utilization
and expansion of many valuable plants such as tea, rubber, coffee, cotton, teak, hemp,
cinchona etc.
4. The germplasm collections in botanical gardens provide basic material for hybridization
and improvement work in commercial as well as ornamental plants.
5. Many new and improved varieties of fruits, vegetables and flowers are the results of
researches in botanical gardens.
6. Glass houses and green houses of botanical gardens provide shelter to many rare and
endangered plants of the world.
7. The botanical gardens are centres of recreation and asthetic beauty.
8. Botanical gardens maintain exchange relationships with other gardens of the world in
form of seeds, saplings and other propagules to far off places.

Special Kinds or Sections of Botanical Gardens:

1. Arboreta: Main collections are of woody species.

2. Pineta: It is an arboreta with collections are of conifers only.
3. Orchidaria: Collections of orchids only.
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 4. Bambuseta: Here the main collection is of bamboos.

KEYS:

Keys are a device to help in determining identity of unidentified organisms. They are used in
taxonomic revisions and floras/faunas. Keys are based on successive choices between generally
two (dichotomous) contrasting characters. Keys are merely an aid to identification. So, keys can
be defined as- They are devices consisting of a series of contrasting statements requiring the
identifier to make comparisons and decisions based on statements in the key as related to
the material to be identified.

Taxonomic keys are of two types- indented key (Yoked keys) and bracketed keys.

1. Indented Keys:
In this type two couplet leads (clues) or alternates of one character are separated by subsequent
and subordinate other alternates. They are called indented because usually the couplets are
printed with gradually increasing indenting. Example of an indented key is given below.

Character Genus
1.a Carpel single ovuled, fruit achene:
2a. Leaves Opposite, compound :
3.a Petals absent , leaves without tendril ………… Clematis
3.b Petals present, third or terminal leaf ………… Naravelia
modified in to tendril Anemone

2.b. Leaves alternate, randial:

1b. Carpels many ovuled, fruit, follicle:
4.a. Carpels united at the base, flowers regular ………… Nigella
4.b. Carpels free, flowers irregular ………… Aconitum

2. Bracketed Keys:
Bracketed keys are those where the two alternative clues or couplets are written in adjacent lines,
giving reference by numbers to their successive subordinate clues. Example of a bracketed key is
given below:

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1. Carpels single ovuled, fruit achene ……… 2
1. Carpel many Ovuled, fruit follicle ……… 4
2. Leaves Opposite, compound ……… 3
2. Leaves alternate, radial ……… Anemone
3. Patals absent, leaves without tendril ……… Clematis
3. Petals present, third or terminal leaf modified into
tendril … … … … … … … … … … … …. …. …. … … … Naravelia
4. Carpels united at the base flowers regular ……… Nigella
4. Carpels free, flowers irregular ……… Aconitum

In the similar way the keys are also used for identification of animals.

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 QUESTIONS & ANSWERS
1. Living matter contains –
(a) Organic (b) Inorganic
(c) Both is significant because (d) None of the above

2. Death is significant because

(a) Maintains population balance (b) Saves nutrient and energy
(c) It removes the invalid (d) All of the above

3. Physical basis of life is –

(a) Cell (b) Protoplasm
(c) Nucleus (d) Chromosome

4. Which of the following conditions is a sufficient criterion to define life ?

(a) Movement (b) Growth
(c) Sensitivity (d) None of the above

5. Which of the following is the most important element in living organisms ?

(a) Hydrogen (b) Oxygen
(c) Carbon (d) Nitrogen

6. The sum total of all living things on the earth constitute –

(a) Organ system (b) Organism
(c) Community (d) Biosphere

7. Organism with shortest life span is –

(a) May fly (b) Man
(c) Silk moth (d) Wheat

8. The amount of energy released per molecule of glucose is -

(a) 68.6 kcal (b) 6.86 kcal
(c) 668 kcal (d) 686 kcal

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9. Which one of the following is called energy cheque of cells ?
(a) GTP (b) ATP
(c) ADP (d) GDP

10. Which of the following is a long term adaptation -

(a) Opposable thumb (b) Tail in kangaroo
(c) Ankle bone (d) All

11. The living being can utilize only -

(a) Free energy (b) Light energy
(c) Heat energy (d) Mechanical energy

12. The term ‘entropy’ refers to-

(a) Disorder (b) Energy transfer
(c) Energy Loss (d) Steady state

13. Binomial system of nomenclature was introduced by –

(a) Lamarck (b) Linnaeus
(c) John Ray (d) Darwin

14. Carolus Linnaeus is known as -

(a) Father of biology (b) Father of classification
(c) Father of taxonomy (d) Father of modern biology

15. Taxonomy includes -

(a) Nomenclatures (b)Classification
(c) Identification (d) All the above

16. A group of populations whose individuals freely interbreed is called

(a) Species (b) Genus
(c) Family (d) Class

17. Which one of the following is the smallest and basic unit ?
(a) Order (b) Sub-species
(c) Species (d) Genus
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18. The scientific name of a species is written is which style ?
(a) Oryza Sativa (b) Oryza sativa
(c) Oryza sativa (d) ORYZA SATIVA

19. In binomial system of nomenclature, the name of a species consists of two words, the first of
which is the -
(a) Genus (b) Class
(c) Family (d) Species

20. Which one of the following is in a correct order -

(a) Genus, Species, Order, Family (b) Family, Species, Genus, Order
(c) Species, Genus, Family, Order (d) Species, Family, Genus, Order

21. Taxon means -

(a) Species (b) Genus
(c) Family (d) Any one

22. Binomial nomenclature means the written the name of plants or animals in two words which
designate –
(a) Order and family (b) Form and Genus
(c) Genus and Species (d) Species and Variety

23. ‘Biological concept of species’ is mainly based on-

(a) Morphological features only (b) Reproductive isolation
(c) Methods of reproduction only(d) Morphology and methods of reproduction

24. The advantage of binomial system of nomenclature –

(a) Universal (b) Standard
(c) Valid (d) Complete

25. Most of the biological names have been derived from-

(a) German (b) English
(c) Spanish (d) Latin

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26. Highest category of taxonomy is called –
(a) Family (b) Division
(c) Kingdom (d) Super division

27. A convenient way for easy identification of an organism by applying diagnostic character is -
(a) Systematic (b) Classification
(c) Key (d) Nomenclature;

28. Hierarchy of categories was introduced by -

(a) Linnaeus (b) Bauhin
(c) De Candolle (d) John Ray

29. To determine the correct place of an organism in a previously established plan of

classification is called -
(a) Classification (b) Taxonomy
(c) Identification (d) Systematic

30. The term ‘new systematics’ was proposed by-

(a) John Ray (b) Julian Huxly
(c) Adanson (d) De Vries

31. Which of the following is not a category ?

(a) Aves (b) Class
(c) Phylum (d) Genus

32. The first step in taxonomy is -

(a) Naming (b) Identification
(c) Classification (d) Description

33. Species is a group of organism which

(a) Live together (b) Flower at a time
(c) Interbreed freely (d) Donor interbreeds

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34. Two or more species occupying the same geographical area are called
(a) Unitypic (b) Sibling
(c) Allopatric (d) Sympatric

35. Binomial nomenclature indicates -

(a) Genus and species (b) Species and sub-species
(c) Genus and family (d) Genus and sub-species

36. True species are-

(a) Interbreeding (b) Sharing the same niche
(c) Feeding on same food (d) Reproductively isolated

37. The maintenance of constant temperature inside the body is an example of –

(a) Entropy (b) Negative feedback loop
(c) Homeostasis (d) Both (a) and (c)

38. The largest herbarium in India is located at -

(a) National Botanic garden, Lucknow (b) Central National Herbarium, Kolkata
(c) Forest Research Institute, Dehradun (d) Botanical Survey of India, Shillong

39. The famous botanical garden of Kew is located at-

(a) England (b) India
(c) USA (d) France

40. Biological species concept is mainly based on-

a. Morphology and methods of reproduction
b. Methods of reproduction only
c. Morphological features only
d. Reproductive isolation.

41. Which is less general in characters as compared to genus –

(a) Family (b) Class
(c) Division (d) Species

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42. The term new systematic was given by-
(a) Takhtajan (b) Julian Huxly
(c) Linnaeus (d) Bentham and Hooker

43. A true species consists of a population-

(a) Reproductively isolated (b) Feeding over the same food
(c) Grow in same place (d) Sharing the same niche

44. Who wrote ‘’Species Plantarum” and provided a basis for classification of plants -
(a) Carolus Linnaeus (b) Robert Hooke
(c) Charles Darwin (d) Hutchinson

45. Botanical gardens provide –

a. Beautiful area for recreation
b. Reservoir for tropical plants
c. Ex-situ conservation of germplasm
d. Natural habitat for wildlife.

46. Identify from the following, the category which has real existence.
(a) Kingdom (b) Phylum
(c) Genus (d) Species

47. Indian Botanical Garden is located at

(a) Lucknow (b) Kolkata
(c) Chennai (d) Mumbai

48. Related genera belong to same –

(a) Species (b) Variety
(c) Family (d) Clone

49. Largest herbarium in India is located at

a. Indian Botanical Garden, Howrah
b. Lloyd Botanical Garden, Darjeeling
c. National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow
d. Forest Research Institute, Dehradun.
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50. Which of the following cover the greater number of organisms ?
(a) Species (b) Class
(c) Family (d) Kingdom

ANSWER

1. (c) 2. (d) 3. (a) 4. (b) 5. (c) 6. (d) 7. (a) 8. (d) 9. (b) 10. (d)

11. (a) 12. (c) 13. (b) 14. (c) 15. (d) 16. (a) 17. (c) 18. (c) 19. (a) 20. (c)

21. (d) 22. (c) 23. (b) 24. (a) 25. (d) 26. (c) 27. (c) 28. (a) 29. (c) 30. (d)

31. (a) 32. (b) 33. (c) 34. (d) 35. (a) 36. (d) 37. (c) 38. (b) 39. (a) 40. (d)

41. (d) 42.(b) 43. (a) 44.(a) 45.(c) 46.(d) 47.(b) 48.(c) 49.(a) 50(d)

B. FILL IN THE BLANKS:

1. Related genera grouped into a taxonomic category are known as ______.

2. Classification reflecting interrelationship in organisms is called ______.
3. The term species was proposed by ______.
4. Science of identification, nomenclature and classification is known as ____.
5. ______ is the basic unit of classification.
6. Systematic has three aspects: identifications, nomenclature and ______.
7. ______ is remembered as the ‘father of taxonomy’
8. The classification based on cytology is known as ______.
9. Chemical taxonomy is based on ______.
10. Linnaeus proposed ______ nomenclature for organisms.
11. Of the various taxonomic categories, only ______ have a real existence.
12. The highest taxonomic category in animal is ______.
13. The lowest taxonomy category is ______.
14. ______ is a group of related species which have several characteristics in common.
15. Generic name always beings with a ___ letter, whereas species name does not.
16. It is not possible to study the diversity of living beings without ______.
17. In the term taxonomy the Greek word ‘taxis’ means ______.
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18. Various categories are arranged in a ______ sequence.
19. ______ is as old as power of speech.
20. Man belongs to the phylum ______.
21. A major diversity of living organisms is found in ______ rain forests.
22. ---------- Classification reflects the evolutionary relationships of organisms.
23. A group of things or units ranked one above another is called ______.
24. Arrangement of organisms into a proper system of classification is called ___.
25. The term new systematic was proposed by ______.
26. Hierarchy was introduced in taxonomy by ______.
27. Common features of species within a genus are known as ______.
28. Concentration of Sodium Chloride of human blood is ______.
29. A self-regulated system is said to be in a state of ______.
30. 70-80% of the body weight of a cell is made up of ______.
31. All living beings have definite ______ span.
32. A ______ is a collection of pressed dried and preserved plants mounted on paper sheets,
properly labeled.
33. The term ______ refers to set alternate characters in such a manner that helps in the
identification of organisms.
34. A ______ is a place where plants from various groups are grown for scientific study,
conservation, education, aesthetics and recreation.

Answer

1. Family 2. Natural System 3. John Ray 4. Taxonomy 5. Species 6.

Classification 7. Carolus Lennaeus 8. Cytotaxonomy 9. Chemistry 10. Binomial
11. Species 12. Kingdom 13. Species 14. Genus 15. Capital 16. Classification
17. Arrangement 18. Descending 19. Classification 20. Chordata 21. Tropical
22. Phylogenetic 23. Hierarchy 24. Systematics 25. Sir Juliah Huxly 26.
Linnaeus 27. Correlated Characters 28. Homeostasis 30. Water 31. Life 32.
Herbarium 33. Keys 34. Botanical Garden
33. Herbarium 33. Keys 34. Botanical

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C. VERY SHORT TYPE QUESTIONS:
1. What are the aims of taxonomy?
2. What are taxonomic groups?
3. What is meant by binomial nomenclature?
4. What is a species?
5. Arrange the units of classification in sequence.
6. Define systematic.
7. On what basis are species grouped together in to a genus.
8. Name the group of animals that has the largest number of species.
9. How is the scientific name distinguished when hand written?
10. Why is classification necessary?
11. What is ICBN?
12. Name the organization which is associated with “International Code of Botanical
Nomenclature (ICBN)”.
13. What is the significance of classification?
14. Adaptation has great evolutionary significance. Why?
15. Name the two types of keys commonly used for identification.
16. What is life?

D. DISTINGUISH BETWEEN
1. Systematic and taxonomy.
2. Allopathic species and sympatric species.
3. Herbaria and Botanical Garden.
4. Species and Taxon.
5. Biological species and genetical species.
6. Clinical death and biological death.
7. Open and closed system.
8. Steady state and Homeostasis.
9. Short term and long term adaptation.
10. Living and non-living.

E. SHORT TYPE QUESTIONS:

1. With the help of suitable examples, explain, the term ‘homeostasis’.

2. ‘Live is an expression of energy exchange process. Why?
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 3. “Adaptation has great evolutionary significance. Why ?
4. State the similarities between living and non-living things.
5. What are the essential features of life?
6. Enumerate at least four facts to illustrate the relevance of physics and chemistry in
understanding life process.
7. Name the three elements predominant in the body of living organisms.
8. What is meant by ‘transformation of energy? Give one example.
9. Mention at least six points about the importance of common salt for living organisms.
10. ‘Death is a natural consequence and it has some positive effects, Explain.
11. What is meant by binomial nomenclature? Give example.
12. What is the aim of taxonomy? Define taxon.
13. The common name of rice is simpler than the scientific name Oryza sativa. What them
the advantage of a scientific name.
14. Name the major categories in taxonomy and arrange them in a hierarchial manner.
15. Define taxon. Name largest and smallest taxon.
16. Explain the term ‘systematic’ and ‘hierarchial classification.
17. Mention the various taxonomic groups and their basis.
18. What are the advantages of giving scientific names to the organisms?
19. What is death? Mention the biological significance of death.
20. Explain the utility of systematic.
21. Mention the importance of herbaria.

F. LONG TYPE QUESTIONS:

1. What is meant by nomenclature? What are its significances?

2. Describe the hierarchial system of classification currently being followed.
3. What is binomial system of nomenclature? Who proposed this system? Mention the
different common rules of nomenclature.
4. Discuss the aim, objective and utility of taxonomy.
5. List the common rules of nomenclature. Give the advantages of scientific names.
6. Define taxonomic hierarchy. What are the advantages of hierarchy of categories? Give
the taxonomic position of mango and man.
7. Why Botanical gardens are called living herbaria? Discuss the use of herbaria.

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