Module 1 (History)

Ancient Period :
(i) The Indus Valley Civilization : Origin, antiquity, extent, authorship and main features;
(iilOrigin of the Aryans
(iii) Antiquity and stratification of the Vedic literature; Society, economy and religion during
Early (Rig-Vedic) period.
(iv) The Lichavi and their republican constitution.
(v) The Rise of the Magadhan empire
(vi)The Mauryas : Extent of empire, Kalinga War and its Impact; Asoka's Dhamma, Foreign
Policy, Development of Art & Architecture during the Mauryan period
(vii) The Kushanas : Kanishka : Extent of empire, His religious policy; Development of Art,
Architecture and Letters during the Kushana period
(viii) The Guptas : Extent of empire; development of language and Literature, art St architecture
during the Gupta period.
(Ix) Harsha-Vardhan : The last great Hindu ruler of Northern India; cultural achievements during
his period.
(x) The Cholas: Maritime activities in Sourth-east Asian counturies. Chola administration, art &
architecture.
(xi) Cultural Achievements of the Pallavas
Medieval Period
(xii) The Arab Invasion of India
(xiii)The Ghaznavid Invasion of India.
[xlv] The Delhi Sultanate : Market and Military Reforms of Allauddin Khilji;Utopian policies of
Muhainmad-bin-Tughlaq.
(xv) The Mongol invasion of India,
(xvl)Religious Movements; a) Sufism,(b)Bhakti Movement
(xvii)Dawn of a New-Islamic culture : Indo-Islamic architecture; Development of Urdu and
Hindi languages.
(xviii) The Mughals ; First Battle of Panipatj Achievements of SherShah Suri, Consolidation of
MuRhal empire; Establishment nf Jagirdari and Mansabdari systems under Akbar, Akbar's
Religious and Rajput policies, Aurangzeb's Religious and Rajput policies, Mughal Architecture
and Painting,Economic Condition during Mughalperiod.
(xix) The Rise of the Marathas : Achievements of Shlvaji,Northward expansion of the Marathas
and their downfall
Modem Period:
(xx)Beginning of European settlements:Formation and growth of East India Company;
Consolidation of British power in India : Battles of Plassey and Buxar; Control over Mysore;
Subsidiary Alliance; Doctrine of Lapse; Doctrine of Escheat
(xxi) Resistance to Colonial Rule; Peasant; Tribal and Cultural Renaissance; Revolt of 1857
(xxil)Social Reforms Movements in Hindu Community : Brahma Samaj, Arya Samaj, Ram
Krishna Mission, Prarthann Samaj and Theosophical Society of India.
(xxiii)Social Reforms Movements in Muslim Community : Wahabi Movement & AliRarh
Movement
(xxiv) Struggle for Raising Women's status : Abolition of Sati System, Widow Marriage Act,
Consent Bill,Stress on Female education,

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 Module 1 (History)

(xxv) Land Revenue Administration under the British rule : Permanent Settlement; Ryotwarl &
Mahalwari Systems,
(xxvi) Rise of Nationalism in India in the 19th century : Formation of Indian National Congress ;
Moderates and Extremists; Swadeshi Movement , Home Rule League Movement; Khiiafat
Movement ,
(xxvii) Mahatma Gandhi and Mass politics : Non-Co-oporation Movement Civil Disobedience
Movement Quit India Movement
(xxviii)The partition of India and its consequences
(xxix) India After Independence : Integration of Princely states in Indian Union; Linguistic
Reorganization of States; Non-alligned policy under Nehru and Indira Gandhi, Libration of
Bangladesh.

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 Module 1 (History)

The Indus Valley  Specialists for handicrafts.

 Import of raw materials.
Civilization : Origin,  Plough was used.
antiquity, extent,  Bodies were buried in wooden coffins,
but during the later stages ‘H symmetry
authorship and main culture’ evolved where bodies were
features buried in painted burial urns.
 Sugar cane not cultivated, horse, iron
Indus Valley Civilization not used.

Indus Valley Civilization was the first major

civilization in south Asia, which spread
across a vast area of land in present day Indus Valley Sites and Specialties
India and Pakistan (around 12 lakh [Link]).
The time period of mature Indus Valley Harappa
Civilization is estimated between BC. 2700-
BC.1900 i.e. for 800 years. But early Indus  Seals out of stones
Valley Civilization had existed even before  Citadel outside on banks of river Ravi
BC.2700.
Mohenjodaro

 Great Bath, Great Granary, Dancing Girl,

Features of Indus Valley Civilization Man with Beard, Cotton, Assembly hall
 Term means ” Mount of the dead”
 On the bank of river Indus
 2700- BC.1900 i.e. for 800 years.
 Believed to have been destructed by
 On the valleys of river Indus.
 Also known as Harappan Civilization. flood or invasion (Destruction was not
 Beginning of city life. gradual).
 Harappan Sites discovered by –
Dayaram Sahni (1921) – Montgomori Chanhudaro
district, Punjab, Pakistan.
 Mohenjo-Daro discovered by – R. D.  Bank of Indus River. – discovered by
Banerji – Larkana district, Sind, Gopal Majumdar and Mackey (1931)
Pakistan.  Pre-harappan culture – Jhangar Culture
 City was divided into Citadel (west) and and Jhukar Culture
Lower Town(east).  Only cite without citadel.
 Red pottery painted with designs in
black. Kalibangan
 Stone weights, seals, special beads,
copper tools, long stone blades etc.  At Rajastan on the banks of river
 Copper, bronze, silver, gold present. Ghaggar, discovered by [Link] (1953)
 Artificially produced – Faience.  Fire Altars

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 Module 1 (History)

 Bones of camel  Large letters of the Harappan script

 Evidence of furrows (sign boards).
 Horse remains ( even though Indus
valley people didn’t use horses).
 Known as third capital of Indus Empire.
Religion of Indus Valley People
Lothal
 Pashupathi Mahadev (Proto Siva)
 At Gujarat near Bhogava river,  Mother goddess
discovered by S.R. Rao (1957)  Nature/ Animal worship
 Fire Altars  Unicorn, Dove, Peepal Tree, Fire
 Beside the tributary of Sabarmati  Amulets
 Store house  Idol worship was practiced ( not a
 Dockyard and earliest port feature of Aryans)
 double burial  Did not construct temples.
 Rice husk  Similarity to Hindu religious practices.
 House had front entrance (exception). (Hinduism in its present form originated
later)
Ropar  No Caste system.

 Punjab, on the banks of river Sutlej.

Discovered by Y.D Sharma (1955)
Indus Valley Society and Culture
 Dog buried with humans.

 Systematic method of weights and

measures ( 16 and its multiples).
 Pictographic
Banawali
Script, Boustrophedon script –
Deciphering efforts by I. Mahadevan
 Haryana
 Equal status to men and women
 On banks of lost river Saraswathi
 Economic Inequality, not an egalitarian
 Barley Cultivation.
society
 Textiles – Spinning and weaving
 3 types – burial, cremation and post
cremation were there, though burial
Dholavira was common.
 Majority of people Proto-australoids
 Biggest site in India, until the discovery and Mediterraneans (Dravidians),
of Rakhigarhi. though Mongoloids, Nordics etc were
 Located in Khadir Beyt, Rann of Kutch, present in the city culture.
Gujarat. Discovered by J.P
Joshi/Rabindra Singh (1990)
 3 parts + large open area for
ceremonies

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 Module 1 (History)

into conflict with the indigenous inhabitants

called the Dravidians mentioned as Dasa or
Artifacts for Posterity Dasyus in Rig Veda. The Rig Veda
mentions the defeat of Sambara by
The most numerous of the surviving artifacts Divodasa, who belonged to the Bharata clan.
are a series of steatite (soapstone) seals, of Possibly the Dasyus in the Rig Veda
which the best known are those of the represent the original inhabitants of the
Humped Brahmani Bull and Pashupati. country, and an Aryan chief who
Apart from this, there are some carved overpowered them was called Trasadvasyu.
figurines - the bronze Dancing Girl and the The Aryan chief was soft towards the Dasas,
statues of a priest and a male torso, again in but strongly hostile to the Dasyus. The term
steatite. Dasyuhatya, slaughter of the Dasyus, is
repeatedly mentioned in the Rig Veda.
Reasons for Decline of Indus Valley
Civilization Some of the chief tribes of the period were
Yadu, Turvasu, Druhyu, Anu Puru, Kuru,
Though there are various theories, the exact Panchala, Bharata and Tritsu. Among the
reason is still unknown. As per a recent inter-tribal conflicts the most important was
study by IIT Kharagpur and Archaeological the 'Battle of the Ten Kings.'
Survey of India, a weaker monsoon might
have been the cause of decline of Indus
Valley Civilization. Environmental changes,
coupled with loss of power of rulers (central Important points to remember:
administration) of Indus valley to sustain the
city life might be the cause (Fariservis  The group of Indo-Europeans who
Theory). There might be resource shortage moved to Persia and India are known
to sustain the population, and then people to Aryans
moved towards south India. Another theory  The Aryans are the original
by Dr Gwen Robbins Schug states that inter- inhabitants of Central Asia.
personal violence, infectious diseases and  They arrived in India around 1500
climate change had played a major role in BC, though there is an ongoing
the demise of the Indus Valley Civilization. debate.
 The region where the Aryans settled
Origin of the Aryans in India was called Sapta Sindhu
(also referred to as the Brahmavarta)
 The Aryans established themselves
in India by defeating the natives
whom they called Dasas or Dasyus
 The period when the Aryans first
The Aryans came to India in several waves. settled in India, is known as Early
The earliest wave is represented by the Rig Vedic Period (1500 BC to 1000 BC)
 The Aryans spread to Indo-Gangetic
Vedic people who appeared in the
subcontinent in about 1500 BC. They came plains in the later Vedic Period and

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this region came to be known as slaves, laborers, artisans degraded to fourth

Aryavarta (1000 BC to 600 BC) group Shudra. This was based on occupation
 The Aryans were the first people in initially but later got rigid on the basis of
India to know the use of iron and birth. Despite of a small population, the
brought horses along with them. people got compartmentalized into these
four groups as per Varnashrama Dharma.

Marriage and women

Antiquity and stratification of
Despite of the patriarchal character of the
the Vedic literature; Society, family, the position of women was much
economy and religion during better in the Rig Vedic period than in later
Early (Rig-Vedic) period. times. They could attend assemblies and
offer sacrifices along with their husbands.
Although the Rig Veda deals with Five women have been mentioned as
devotional work of religious nature, yet it composers of hymns out of which Ghosha,
gives a vivid picture of the early Vedic Lopamudra and Apala are famous. Girls
civilization. The Vedic Civilization is best were normally married off after puberty
understood from the social life, political (between the age of 16 and 17). Unmarried
organisation, economic life and religious girls grew up in the home of their parents.
beliefs. The Kula or family was the basic Some unmarried woman like Visvavara and
unit of Rig-Vedic society. The Kula was Apala offered sacrifices on their own. There
headed by a Kulapa, who was usually the are also evidences of widow remarriage in
eldest member. Society was essentially the Rig-Veda.
patriarchal and birth of son was desired
repeatedly. Status of women was equal to Education
men in the early Rig-Vedic society. Both
polygamy and polyandry were in vogue. In the early Rig-Vedic era, entire instruction
was given orally. Art of writing does not
The Evolution of Varna System seem to have developed yet. In the well-
known Gayatri mantra there is a prayer to
Social strata used to exist in the Harappan Savitri for the stimulation of the intellect.
civilization also. Similarly, there was a There were women teachers. Many of them
threefold division of society {priests, rulers possessed the highest spiritual knowledge.
and producers} in the Iranian society also. Maitreyi and Gargi were gifted scholars.
However, what happened in Indian sub- Rishis who composed hymns founded their
continent was unique and extraordinary. In own schools separately to teach their pupils
the evolution of Kingship in the later Vedic and every person among the vis was entitled
era, the priests (Brahmans) and rulers to learn Vedic mantras. In the later-Vedic
(Khsatriyas) consolidated their respective phase, with the development of
position in the society. The producers split Varnashrama, education began with an
into two groups. The free peasants and investiture ceremony (upanayan). Since
traders formed the group Vaishya while the Upanayan was confined to three upper

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Varnas, the sudras were not entitled to king, and the father-in-law, etc. were given
education. Sometimes girls were also special treatment. Respect for the elders
encouraged. When teacher was satisfied self-restraint, moral purity, abstinence of all
with the student, last sermon called kinds and faithfulness were some of the
snatakopadesa (kind of convocation) was virtues. Cleanliness was a passion. Daily
delivered. bath, washing of the feet and hands every
now and then, and purifying the atmosphere
with Vedic mantras were a part of ritual
when ritualism acquired
special significance in the later-Vedic age.
It became one of the many sources of the
Institution of Gotra development of hierarchy and the
supremacy for the Brahmanas.
Gotra or cowpen was a mechanism for
widening social ties a new relationship was Eating Habits
established between hitherto unrelated
people. It is possible that animals were The main cereal produced by the early Rig-
herded in common and such a place was Vedic people was Yava or barley. Wheat
known as gotra and from this it acquired the (Godhuma) appears in later Vedic texts
character of an exogamous institution. only. Yava was also a generic term for
various kinds of cereals. ilk, Milk products
Amusements and entertainments and cattle meat belonged to their food
habits. Alcoholic / Non-alcoholic drinks
Music, both vocal and instrumental, was were known and common. Soma and Sura
well known. Vedic Aryans played on the are two popular liquors. Sura may be a kind
Vina and flute Vana to the accompaniment of beer or wine.
of drums and cymbals. Few claim that
Dhrupad of Indian classical music originated Dress code
in Vedic Era. Dancing was common. The
chariot race was a favourite sport and source Two pieces of cloth were normally worn-
of entertainment. Chariot race was a the upper garment was called uttariya and
symbolic source of political authority of the the lower one was known as antariya. The
king. The fascination of gambling and the dress for the male and the female did not
ruin caused by its addiction find mention in differ much.
the Rig-Veda.
Health and hygiene
House holding
Everyone aspired for and everyone was
The Griha sutra prescribes a code of blessed to live for a hundred years. Epilepsy
conduct, which gives a fairly good idea of was common and it affected the children as
the manners and etiquette of the later-Vedic well. Superstitions and magical charms were
age. A guest (atithi) was welcomed at all employed to cure the diseases. Miraculous
times and special guests, like the guru, the cures are ascribed to the twin-gods, the

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Ashvins, who are the great healers of Crafts and Metallurgy

diseases and experts in the surgical art. They
were divine physicians who restored All kinds of crafts were practiced. There
eyesight and cured the blind, sick and were potters, Chariot makers, carpenters,
maimed. and weaver and leather workers. The metal
work was known as follows: Copper was
known as ―Ayas‖ Gold was known as
Hiranya Iron was also known as was known
Rig Vedic Economy as Shyama or Krishna Ayas.

Rig Vedic economy was primarily pastoral. Religion

They domesticated Pashu (which included
cattle, horse and even human beings), as There were no places of worship like
opposed to Mriga, i.e. wild animals. Cattle temples. There are no indications in the Rig-
was synonymous with wealth and a wealthy Veda of any ―temples reared by mortal
person was called Gomat. Cattle was so hands‖ and consecrated as places of
important that the terms of battle were worship. On the contrary, every
derived from Gau itself, such as Gavisti, householder, every patriarch of his family,
Gosu, Gavyat, Gavyu. Godhuli was a lighted the sacrificial fire in his own home
measure of time. Gopa and Gopati were and poured libations of the Soma juice and
epithets given to the king. Duhitri was the prayed to the gods for happiness to his
term used for daughter because she used to family, for abundant crops and wealth and
milk the cow. One of the four categories of cattle, for immunity from sickness, and for
gods was known as Gojata, i.e. cowborn. victory over the black aborigines. Natural
When the Vedic people encountered buffalo, phenomena were conceived as the
they called it Gauri and Gavala or cow- expression of some spiritual different
haired. The cattle obtained in raids were appearances of various gods.
divided among the families. Cattle formed
an important item of donation and it may The Lichavi and their
also have formed a part of bali, the tribute
given to the raja by the clan or Vis members. republican constitution
The cattle in general and cow in particular
was the main medium of exchange during The History of Licchavis
the Rig Vedic period. The economy was
based upon agriculture. The people were The Lichchhavis (also Lichchavi, Licchavi)
well acquainted with the sowing, harvesting, were an important member of the Vajjian
threshing and various agro seasons. The confederacy. The early Indian traditions
people were pastoral, Cow was revered but describe the Lichchhavis as Kshatriyas.
the cows, and bulls were sacrificed too. The Scholars reject the theory of foreign origin
gifts to the priests were in terms of number of the Lichchhavis on the strength of these
of Cows and women slaves but NOT in traditions. But they were degraded to the
measurements of lands. status of fallen Kshatriyas due to their
championship of non-Brahmanical creeds
like Jainism and Buddhism.

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 Module 1 (History)

Rise of the Licchavi Power sixteen years. The Lichchhavis built a

mighty alliance with the Vajjis and the other
In the 6th century B.C. the Licchavi power thirty six Ganarajas and also with the
was firmly established. Though the kingdom of Kasi-Kosala against Magadha.
Lichchhavis belonged to the Vajji But the ministers of Ajatasatru sowed seeds
confederacy, they had autonomous status. of discord among the members of the anti-
Their capital was Vaisali. Magadhan confederacy and destroyed their
unity. Ultimately the Vajjian confederacy
Originally, they seem to have an was destroyed by Ajatasatru. The Vajji
independent status. The Buddhist records territory was annexed to Magadha.
preserve the names of important Licchavi
leaders among whom the name of Chetaka The Licchavi’s republican constitution
deserves special mention. Chetaka‘s sister
Trisala was the mother of Mahavira, the There were two Systems of government in
preacher of Jainism. Chetaka‘s daughter the Eastern region. The states
Chellana was married to king Bimbisara of of Anga, Magadha, Vatsa etc. were
Magadha. The Lichchhavis thus appear to be monarchies. Those of Kasf, Kaulala,
highly connected. Videha etc. on the other band were
republics. Two of these republics were quite
The Magadha-Licchavi Struggle-fall of well known, the Republics of
the Licchavis the Vajjis or Licchavis and that of
the Mallas. Republics were later
The Licchavis turned to be great rivals of developments of monarchies and the
Magadhan monarchy. In the reign of precursors of democracies.
Bimbisara of Magadha, they invaded the The Licchavis founded their Republic with a
Magadhan kingdom. In the reign of view to consolidating their political power.
Ajatasatru, a protracted war began between The credit for its foundation goes to Cetaka,
Magadha and the Lichchhavis. The latter who was a wise and valorous king
were united with the Vajjis in a confederacy. of Videha. He was also the President of the
In the struggle that followed the Lichchhavis whole Republic. This Republic was the
and the Vajjis were destroyed. union of eighteen political units, nine of
which belonged to the Licchavis and the
The causes of the Magadha-Lichchavi war remaining nine to the Mallas.
were many. Ajatasatru wanted to take
revenge on the Lichchhavis, as their chief The Kings of each unit comprising the Vajji
Chetaka had refused to extradite Republic were called Gananayakas. The
Ajatasatru‘s step brothers. They had escaped council of the Gananayakas was
to Vaisali (Licchavi capital) with the royal called Gana Sabha or Republican Council.
elephant and family jewels and were granted It made the constitution and the laws. The
political asylum. The real cause of the individual units were governed in
Magadha-Licchavi war was the aggressive accordance with the constitution of
imperialism of Magadha against the the Gana or the Union. The Vajji Republic
neighboring republic. The war continued for was rich and well developed in the fields of

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 Module 1 (History)

Politics, Economics, Society and Religion. themselves in internecine quarrel in which

The monarchists were highly jealous of this Magadha emerged as the most powerful
powerful Republic. They were bent upon state and acquired mastery in the political
destroying it. But they were helpless in the domain of India.
face of the powerful Vajjian army.
Magadha under Bimbisara:

Magadha rose into prominence under the

Videha with its capital at Vaisali was the rule of Bimbisara who belonged to the
biggest unit. Vaisali was divided into three Haryanka dynasty. Most probably he
zones. The first zone consisted of seven overthrew the Brihadrathas from Magadha
thousand residential houses with golden and assumed the title ―Srinika‖ after his
domes. The middle of the town consisted of accession. He ruled Magadha from 544 B.C.
fourteen thousand houses with silver domes. to 493 B.C. His greatest achievement was
The third zone consisted of twenty-one the establishment of Magadhan empire. He
thousand houses with copper domes. followed fourfold policy in order to fulfill
his programme of imperial expansion.
These zones were inhabited by the high,
middle and lower classes Policy of Matrimonial Alliance:
respectively. Vaisali was not only the capital
of the Licchavis, it was the capital of the By adopting the policy of matrimonial
entire Vajji Republic. It was enclosed within alliance, Bimbisara tried to augment his
four city walls, each at a distance of two power. He married Kosaladevi, daughter of
miles from the others. It had several king Mahakosala of Kosala, received the
ramparts and entrance-gates. The Republic Kasi village as dowry, which yielded
was a confederation of six clans viz. revenue of 1, 00,000. ―Mahavamsa‖
the Ugras, the Bhojas, the Rajanyas, mentions his marriage with Chellana the
ihe Iksvakus (the Licchavis), the Jnatasand daughter of Chetak, the Lichchavi chief of
the Kauravas. Vaisali.

He then married Vasavi, a princess of

Videha in the northward. He also got the
hand of Khema, the daughter of king of
The Rise of the Modra in Central Punjab. The establishment
Magadhan empire of matrimonial relations with these states
added glory to the Magadhna empire and it
also paved the way for the expansion of
Magadhan empire and westward.
In the sixth country B.C. North India was
divided into sixteen kingdoms out of which Policy of Conquest:
Avanti, Vatsa, Kosala and Magadha rose
into prominence by aggrandizing upon other The next policy of Bimbisara for the
weaker [Link] four states involved expansion of Magadhan empire was the

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policy of conquest. Bimbisara led a administration. Provincial administration

campaign against the kingdom of Anga and was also well-organised. The head of
defeated its king Brahmadatta. Anga along provincial administration was ―Uparaja‖.
with its capital city Champa, was annexed to The villages enjoyed rural autonomy.
the Magadhan empire. ―Gramika‖ was the head of the village
administration. The penal laws were severe.
Bimbisara also developed the means of
communication by constructing good roads.
He is said to have established a new capital
at Rajagriha situated on the outskirts of the
Friendly Relation with distant old capital Girivraja.
Neighbours:
He made Magadha a paramount power in
As a farsighted diplomat, Bimbisara had the sixth century B.C. It is said that his
followed the policy of friendship towards kingdom had consisted of 80,000 villages.
the distant neighbours to win their co- He was also a devotee of Buddha. He
operation for the safety and security of his donated a garden named ―Belubana‖ to the
empire. He received an embassy and letter Buddhist Sangha. According to the Buddhist
from Pukkusati, the ruler of Gandhar with chronicle Bimbisara ruled Magadha from
which Pradyota had fought unsuccessfully. 544 B.C. to 493 B.C. He was succeeded by
Magadha‘s most formidable enemy was his son Ajatasatru who had killed him and
Chanda Pradyota Mahasena of Avanti who seized the throne for himself.
fought with Bimbisara but ultimately the
two thought it wise to become friends. He Ajatasatru
also sent his physician Jivak to Ujjain when
Pradyota was attacked by jaundice. The reign of Ajatasatru witnessed the high
watermark of Bimbisara dynasty. From the
Consolidation of his Empire by a Good very beginning Ajatasatru pursued the
Administrative System: policy of expansion and conquest. He began
a prolonged war with Prasenjit of Kosala
By introducing a highly efficient system of who had revoked the gift of the Kasi village
administration, Bimbisara consolidated his made to Bimbisara. The war continued for
conquests. His administration was found to some time with varying success to both
have been really well-organised and sides till Prasenjit ended it by giving his
efficient. The high officers were divided into daughter, Vajira Kumari in marriage to
three classes, viz. executive, military and Ajatasatru and leaving him in possession of
judicial. The ‗Sabarthakas‘ were responsible Kasi.
for the management of general
administration. The next achievement of Ajatasatru was the
conquest of Lichchavis of Vaisali. Chetak,
―Senanayaka Mahamatras‖ were in charge chief of Lichchavis had formed a strong
of military affairs. ―Vyavaharika confederacy comprising 36 republics in
Mahamatra‘s‖ were in charge of judicial- order to fight Magadha. According to jaina

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sources, before his death, Bimbisara gave enemy. Ultimately Lichchhavi was annexed
his elephant ―Seyanaga‖ ―Sechanaka‖ and to the Magadhan territory.
two large bejewelled necklaces, one each to
his sons Halla and Vehalla who were born of Ajatasatru faced danger from Avanti while
their Lichahhavi mother, Chellana. he was engaged in war with Lichchhavis.
King Chanda Pradyota of Avanti became
Chetak had given them political assylum. jealous of his power and threatened an
After his accession, Ajatasatru requested invasion of Magadha. To meet this danger
chetak to surrender them. But Chetak Ajatasatru started fortification of Rajgiri.
refused to extradite Chetaka‘s step brothers. But the invasion did not materialize in his
So the conflict between Ajatasatru and life time.
Lichchhavis became inevitable.
The successors of Ajatasatru:
According to Buddhist text Ajatasatru had
entered into an agreement with Lichchhavis Ajatasatru was succeeded by his son Udayin
to divide among them the gems extracted who ruled for sixteen years. The Buddhist
from a mine at the foot of the hill near the texts describe him as a parricide where as
river Ganges. But the Lichchhavis deprived the jaina literature mentions him as a
Ajatasatru of his share. But Dr. H.C. devoted son to his father. Udayin built the
Raychoudhury points out that the most city of Pataliputra at the fort of Patalagrama
potent cause of war was the common which commanded the strategically and
movement among the republican states commercial highway of eastern India.
against the rising imperialism of Magadha. During his rule Avanti became jealous of the
ascendancy of Magadha and a contest
Ajatasatru made elaborate war preparations between the two started for mastery of
against the Lichchhavis. As a base for Northern India.
operation he constructed a fort at
Patalagrama on the confluence of Ganga and However, Udayin was not destined to live to
the Son which eventually developed into the see the ultimate victory of Magadha against
famous capital of Pataliputra. Ajatasatru also Avanti. According to the jaina texts he
tried to create a division among members of constructed a chaitya in Pataliputra. He also
Lichchhavi confederacy. He employed his observed fasts on the eighth and fourteenth
minister Vassakara who successfully sowed tithis as per the jaina tradition. It is said that
the seeds of dissension among the members Udayin have been murdered by assassin
of Vajjian confederacy and broke their engaged by Palaka, the king of Avanti.
solidarity. According to Ceylonese chronicle Udayin
was succeeded by three kings namely
Thereafter Ajatasatru invaded their territory Aniruddha, Manda and Nagadasaka.
and it took him full sixteen years to destroy
Lichchhavis. In this war he used some new The Ceylonese chronicle describes that all
weapons and devices like ―mahasilakantaka‖ the three kings were parasite. The people
and ―rathamushala‖ to overpower the resented their rule and revolted against the
last king Nagadasaka and raised an amatya

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Sisunaga on the throne of Magadha. With

this restoration the rule of Haryanka dynasty
came to end and the rule of Sisunaga Foundation of the Mauryan Empire:
dynasty came into being.
The foundation of the Maurya Empire in
Sisunaga served as the viceroy of Kasi 321 B.C. by Chandragupta Maurya was a
before he ascended the throne of Magadha. unique event in history.
He established his capital at Girivaraja. His
greatest achievement was the conquest and Particularly in view of the fact that it was
annexation of Avanti. This brought to an end found shortly after Alexander‘s victorious
the hundred year‘s rivalry between Magadha campaigns in North-West India during 327
and Avanti. Probably he had annexed Vatsa B.C. – 325 B.C.
and Kosala Kingdoms to Magadha. Towards
the later part of his regain he temporarily There is no unanimity with regard to the
shifted his capital to Vaisali. ancestry of the Mauryas. The Puranas
describe them as Sudras and uprighteous
Sisunaga was succeeded by his son probably due to the fact that the Mauryas
Kalasoka or Kakavarna. The reign of were mostly patrons of heterodox sects.
Kalasoka is important for two events, viz.,
the transfer of Magadha capital from The Buddhist works (e.g. Mahavamsa and
Girivaraja to Pataliputra and holding of the Mahavamshatika) have attempted to link the
second Buddhist Congress at Vaisali. Very Mauryan dynasty with the tribe of the
unfortunately, he lost his life in a palace Sakyas to which the Buddha belonged. In
revolution, which brought the Nandas upon the Divyavadana, Bindusara, the son of
the throne of Magadha. The usurper was Chandragupta, is described as Kshatriya
probably Mahapadma Nanda, the founder of Murdabhishikta or annointed Kshatriya.
Nanda dynasty and he also killed the ten
sons of Kalasoka who ruled jointly. Thus the According to the Buddhist writers, the
Sisunaga dynasty was followed by the new region from which the Mauryas came was
dynasty of the Nandas. full of peacocks (Mayura in Sanskrit and
Mora in Pali), and hence they came to be
known as the Moriyas (Pali form of
Mauryas). It is obvious from this that the
The Mauryas : Extent of Buddhists were trying to elevate the social
position of Asoka and his predecessors.
empire, Kalinga War and
its Impact; Asoka's Jain tradition given in Hemachandra‘s
Dhamma, Foreign Policy, Parisisthaparvan relates Chandragupta as the
son of a daughter of the chief of a village of
Development of Art & peacock-tamers (Mayura-Poshaka). The use
Architecture during the of the term ‗Vrishala‘ and ‗Kula-hina‘ in the
Mauryan period Mudrarakshasa of Vishakadatta for
Chandragupta probably means that

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Chandragupta was a mere upstart of an 305 B.C. saw him back in the north-west
unknown family. involved in a campaign against Seleucus
Nikator (Alexander‘s general who gained
The Greek classical writers, such as Justin, control of most Asiatic provinces of the
describes Chandragupta Maurya as a man of Macedonian empire) which Chandragupta
humble origin, but does not mention his finally won in 303 B.C. Both signed a treaty
exact caste. The Junagarh Rock Inscription and entered into a marriage alliance.
of Rudradaman (150 A.D.) mentions the
Vaisya Pusyagupta as the provincial Who married whose daughter is not clearly
governor of the Maurya king Chandragupta. known? But it seems that Chandragupta
There is a reference to Pusyagupta being the made a gift of 500 elephants to the Greek
brother-in-law of Chandragupta which general and obtained the territory across the
implies that the Mauryas may have been of Indus viz., the Satrapies of Paropanisadai
Vaisya origin. (Kabul), Aria (Herat), Arachoisa
(Kandahar), and Gedrosia (Baluchistan).
In conclusion, we can say that the Mauryas Seleucus‘s ambassador, Megasthenes, lived
were of comparatively humble origin for many years at the Maurya court at
belonging to the Moriya tribe and were Pataliputra and travelled extensively in the
certainly of a low caste. country.

According to Jaina sources

(Parisistaparvan), Chandragupta embraced
Chandragupta Maurya (321-297 B.C.): Jainism towards the end of his life and
stepped down from the throne in favour of
Chandragupta Maurya succeeded to the his son, Bindusara. Accompanied by
Nanda throne in 321 B.C. after dethroning Bhadrabahu, a Jaina saint, and several other
the last Nanda ruler (Dhanananda) at the age monks he is said to have gone to Sravana
of 25. He was the protege of the Brahmin Belgola near Mysore, where he deliberately
Kautilya, also known as Chanakya or starved himself to death in the approved
Vishnugupta, who was his guide and mentor Jaina fashion (Sallekhana).
both in acquiring the throne and in keeping
it. Kautilya and Arthashastra:

The acquisition of Magadha was the first Kautilya was the Prime Minister of
step in establishing the new dynasty. Once Chandragupta Maurya. Chandragupta found
the Ganges valley was under his control, the Mauryan Empire with his help.
Chandragupta moved to the north-west to Arthashastra was written by him. It is the
exploit the power vacuum created by most important source for writing the history
Alexander‘s departure. The areas of the of the Mauryas and is divided into 15
North-West fell to him rapidly. adhikarnas or sections and 180 Prakaranas
or subdivisions. It has about 6,000 slokas.
Moving back to Central India he occupied The book was discovered by Shamasastri in
the region north of the Narmada River. But 1909 and ably translated by him.

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 Module 1 (History)

The major ideal of kingship according to

Kautilya is that his own well-being lies in
It is a treatise on statecraft and public the well-being of his people of only the
administration. Despite the controversy over happy subjects ensure the happiness of their
its date and authorship, its importance lies in sovereign. He also says that the king should
the fact that it gives a clear and be ‗Chakravarti‘ or the conqueror of
methodological analysis of economic and different realms and should win glory by
political conditions of the Mauryan period. conquering other lands.

The similarities between the administrative He should protect his people from external
terms used in the Arthashastra and in the dangers and ensure internal peace. Kautilya
Asokan edicts certainly suggests that the maintained that the soldiers should be
Mauryan rulers were acquainted with this imbued with the spirit of a ‗holy war‘ before
[Link] such his Arthashastra provides they march to the battlefield. According to
useful and reliable information regarding the him, all is fair in a war waged in the interest
social and political conditions as well as the of the country.
Mauryan administration.
3. About the Ministers:
1. King:
Kautilya maintains that the king should
Kautilya suggests that the king should be an appoint ministers. King without ministers is
autocrat and he should concentrate all like a one-wheeled chariot. According to
powers into his own hands. He should enjoy Kautilya, king‘s ministers should be wise
unrestricted authority over his realm. But at and intelligent. But the king should not
the same time, he should give honour to the become a puppet in their hands.
Brahmanas and seek advice from his
ministers. Thus the king though autocrat, He should discard their improper advise.
should exercise his authority wisely. The ministers should work together as; a
team. They should hold meetings in privacy.
He should be cultured and wise. He should He says that the king who cannot keep his
also be well-read so as to understand all the secrets cannot last long.
details of his administration. He says that the
chief cause of his fall is that the king is 4. Provincial Administration:
inclined towards evil. He lists six evils that
led to a king‘s decline. They are Kautilya tells us that the kingdom was
haughtiness, lust, anger, greed, vanity and divided into several provinces governed by
love of pleasures. Kautilya says that the king the members of the royal family. There were
should live in comfort but he should not some smaller provinces as Saurashtra and
indulge in pleasures. Kambhoj etc. administered by other officers
called ‗Rashtriyas‘. The provinces were
2. Ideals of Kingship: divided into districts which were again sub-
divided into villages. The chief
administrator of the district was called the

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 Module 1 (History)

‗SthaniK while the village headman was Kautilya says that poverty is a major cause
called the ‗Gopa‘. of rebellions. Hence there should be no
shortage of food and money to buy it, as it
5. Civic Administration: creates discontent and destroys the king.
Kautilya therefore advises the king to take
The administration of big cities as well as steps to improve the economic condition of
the capital city of Pataliputra was carried on his people. Kautilya says that the chief
very efficiently. Pataliputra was divided into source of income was the land revenue in
four sectors. The officer incharge of each villages while the tax on the sale of goods
sector was called the ‗Sthanik. He was was the chief source in the cities.
assisted by junior officers called the ‗Gopas‘
who looked after the welfare of 10 to 40 Bindusara (297-272 B.C.):
families. The whole city was in the charge
of another officer called the ‗Nagrika‘. In 297 B.C., Chandragupta was succeeded
There was a system of regular census. by his son Bindusara, known to the Greeks
as Amitrochates (Sanskrit, Amitraghata, the
6. Spy Organisation: destroyer of foes). Bindusara campaigned in
the Deccan, extending Mauryan control in
Kautilya says that the king should maintain the peninsula as far south as Mysore.
a network of spies who should keep him
well informed about the minute details and He is said to have conquered the land
happenings in the country, the provinces, the between the two seas‘, presumably the
districts and the towns. The spies should Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal. Kalinga
keep watch on other officials. There should (modern Orissa) on the eastern coast,
be spies to ensure peace in the land. however, remained hostile and was
According to Kautilya, women spies are conquered in the succeeding reign by
more efficient than men, so they should, in Bindusara‘s son Ashoka.
particular, be recruited as spies. Above all
the kings should send his agents in In foreign affairs, Bindusara maintained the
neighbouring countries to gather information friendly relations with the Hellenic west
of political significance. established by his father. He is said to have
had contacts with Antiochus I Soter, king of
7. Shipping: Syria, son of Seleucus Nikator whose
ambassador, Deimachos was said to have
Another significant information that we been at his court.
gather from Kautilya is about shipping under
the Mauryas. Each port was supervised by A man of wide tastes and interests, he
an officer who kept vigil on ships and requested Antiochus I to send him some
ferries. Tolls were levied on traders, sweet wine, dried figs and a sophist; the last
passengesand fishermen. Almost all ships being not meant for export, however, could
and boats were owned by the kings. not be sent. Pliny mentions that Ptolemy
Philadelpus of Egypt sent Dionysius as his
8. Economic Condition: ambassador to India. The Ashokavadana

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informs us that a revolt took place in Taxila religious and charitable donations are
during the reign of Bindusara, when the referred to. She is described as the mother of
citizens objected to the oppression of the Prince Tivara, the only son of Asoka to be
higher officials. Bindusara sent Asoka to put mentioned by the name in the inscription.
an end to the revolt, which he did
successfully. As regards Ashoka‘s accession to the throne
there is a general agreement in the sources
Ashoka (268-232 B.C.): that Ashoka was not the crown prince but
succeeded after killing his brothers. There is,
Bindusara‘s death in 272 B.C. led to a however, no unanimity in the texts either
struggle for succession among his sons. It regarding the nature of the struggle or the
lasted for four years and in 268 B.C. Ashoka number of his brothers.
emerged successful. According to
Asokavadana, Subhadrangi was the mother In one place the Mahavamsa states that
of Ashoka and it describes her as the Asoka killed his elder brother to become
daughter of a Brahman of Champa. king whereas elsewhere in the same work
and also in the Dipavamsa he is said to have
The Divyavadana version largely agrees killed ninety-nine brothers. The Mahavamsa
with that of the Ashokavadana. She is called states that although he put ninety-nine
Janapadakalyani, or in other version of the brothers to death, Asoka spared the life of
same source Subhadrangi. In the Ceylonese the youngest of these, Tissa who was later
source, Vamsatthapakasini the Queen made vice-regent (He retired to a life of
mother is called Dharma. religious devotion having come under the
influence of the preacher
According to legend, Ashoka as a young Mahadhammarakkhita and then known by
prince was given charge of the Viceroyship the name of Ekaviharika). It seems that
of Ujjain. Buddhist texts inform us that a though there was a struggle, a lot of
revolt took place in Taxila during the reign descriptions of it are plain exaggerations.
of Bindusara and Ashoka was sent to quell
it. This he did without antagonising the local After ascending the throne, Ashoka
populace. Corroboration for this may be according to Taranatha spent several years
sought in an Aramaic inscription from in pleasurable pursuits and was
Taxila which refers to Priyadarshi the consequently called Kamasoka. This was
viceroyor governor. followed by a period of extreme wickedness,
which earned him the name of Candasoka.
During his Viceroyalty of Ujjain he fell in Finally his conversion to Buddhism and his
love with the daughter of a merchant of subsequent piety led him to be called
Vidisa, referred to as Devi or Dhammasoka.
Vidisamahadevi or Sakyani. Ashoka‘s two
other well-known queens were Karuvaki and The most important event of Ashoka‘s reign
Asandhimitra. The second queen, Karuvaki seems to have been his conversion to
is mentioned in the Queen‘s Edict inscribed Buddhism after his victorious war with
on a pillar at Allahabad, in which her Kalinga in 260 B.C. Kaling controlled the

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 Module 1 (History)

routes to South India both by land and sea, Third Buddhist Council is significant
and it was therefore necessary that it should because it was the final attempt of the more
become a part of the Mauryan Empire. sectarian Buddhists, the Theravada School,
to exclude both dissidents and innovators
The 13th Major Rock Edict vividly from the Buddhist Order.
describes the horrors and miseries of this
war and the deep remorse it caused to Furthermore, it was at this Council that it
Ashoka. In the words of the Mauryan was decided to send missionaries to various
emperor, ‗A hundered and fifty thousand parts of the sub-continent and to make
people were deported, a hundred thousand Buddhism an actively proselytizing religion.
were killed and many times that number
perished…………. It has been stated in the Ashoka mentions various of his
past that he was dramatically converted to contemporaries in the Hellenic world with
Buddhism immediately after the battle, with whom he exchanged missions, diplomatic
its attendant horrors. and otherwise in his 13th Major Rock Edict.
These have been identified as Antiochus II
But this was not so, and as one of his Theos of Syria, (Amtiyoga)the grandson of
inscriptions, viz., Bhabra Edict, states it was Seleucus Nikator; Ptolemy III Philadelphus
only after a period of more than two years of Egypt (Tulamaya); Antigonus Gonatus of
that he became an ardent supporter of Macedonia (Antekina); Magas of Cyrene
Buddhism under the influence of a Buddhist (Maka) and Alexander of Epirus
monk, Upagupta. (Alikyashudala).

He also states his acceptance of the Buddhist Communications with the outside world
creed, the faith in the Buddha, the Dhamma were by now well developed. Asokan
(the teachings of the Buddha), and the inscriptions corroborated by archaeological
Samgha. Written specifically for the local data are a reliable guide to the extent of the
Buddhist clergy, he also refers to himself as Mauryan Empire.
the ‗king of Magadha‘, a title which he uses
only on this occasion. Magadha was the home province of the
Mauryas and the city of Pataliputra its
The Buddhist church was reorganised during capital. Other cities mentioned in the
his reign with the meeting of Third Buddhist inscriptions include Ujjain, Taxila, Tosali
council at Pataliputra in 250 B.C. under the near Bhubaneshwar, Kausambi and
chairmanship of Mogalliputta Tissa but the Suvarnagiri in Andhra Pradesh.
emperor himself does not refer to it in his
inscriptions. According to tradition, Kashmir was
included in the Ashokan Empire and that
This stresses the point that Asoka was Ashoka built the city of Srinagar. Khotan in
careful to make a distinction between his Central Asia was also supposed to have
personal support for Buddhism and his duty come under Mauryan sway.
as emperor to remain unattached and
unbiased in favour of any religion. The

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 Module 1 (History)

The Mauryans had close connections with information on the later Mauryas, but there
the areas of modern Nepal since the foothills is no agreement among them. Even among
were a part of the empire. One of Ashokan‘s the Puranas, there is a lot of variance
daughter is said to have married a nobleman between one Puranas and another. The one
from the mountains of Nepal. statement on which all the Puranas are in
agreement is that the dynasty lasted 137
In the east, Mauryan influence extended as years.
far as the Ganga delta. Tamralipti or modern
Tamluk was an important port on the Bengal Ashoka‘s death was followed by the division
coast from where the ships sailed for Burma, of the empire into western and eastern
Sri Lanka as well as for South India. halves. The western part including the north-
Another major port on the west coast was western province, Gandhara and Kashmir
Broach at the mouth of the Narmada. was governed by Kunala (one of the sons of
Ashoka) and then for a while by Samprati
Kandahar formed the western-most (according to Jaina tradition he was a
extension of the Mauryan Empire and grandson of Ashoka and a patron of
Ashokan inscriptions mention the Jainism).
Gandharas, Kambojas and the Yonas as his
borderers. Through the north-west the It was later threatened from the north-west
Mauryas maintained close contacts with by the Bactrian Greeks, to whom it was
their neighbours, the Seleucid Empire and practically lost by 180 B.C. From the south,
the Greek kingdoms. the threat was posed by the Andhrasorthe
Satavahanas who later came to power in the
Mauryan relations with Sri Lanka were very Deccan.
close and Asoka sent his son Mahindra and
daughter Sanghamitra to preach Buddhism The eastern part of the Maurya Empire, with
in Sri Lanka. Asokan inscriptions in the its capital at Pataliputra, came to be ruled by
south mention several people with whom he Dasaratha (probably one of the grandsons of
was on friendly terms – the Cholas, Ashoka). Dasaratha apart from being
Pandyas, Satiyaputras and Keralaputras mentioned in the Matsya Purana is also
(Major Rock Edict II.) known to us from the caves in the Nagarjuni
Hills, which he dedicated to the Ajivikas.
Disintegration of the Empire:
According to the Puranas, Dasaratha reigned
Towards the end of his reign Asoka‘s grip for eight years. This would suggest that he
over the imperial organisation became weak. died without an heir old enough to come to
The Maurya Empire began to decline with the throne. The same sources speak of
the death of Asoka in 232 B.C., soon after it Kunala ruling for eight years.
broke up. The evidence for the later
Mauryas is very meagre. He must have died at about the same time as
Dasaratha; so that Sampriti now ruling in the
The Puranas, besides Buddhist and Jaina west may have successfully regained the
literature, do provide us with some

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 Module 1 (History)

throne at Pataliputra, thus uniting the empire while, giving the Mauryas a chance
again. to re-establish some degree of their
previous power. The partition of the
This event occurred in 223 B.C. However, empire disrupted the various services
the empire had probably already begun to as well.
disintegrate. Jaina sources mention that 3. Scholars have suggested that the pro-
Samprati ruled from Ujjain and Pataliputra. Buddhist policies of Ashoka and the
After Dasaratha and Samprati came pro-Jaina policies of his successors
Salisuka, a prince mentioned in the alienated the Brahmins and resulted
astronomical work, the Gargi Samhita, as a in the revolt of Pushyamitra, the
wicked quarrelsome king. founder of the Shunga dynasty. H.C.
Raychaudhuri maintains that
The successors of Salisuka, according to the Asoka‘s pacifist policies were
Puranas, were Devavarman, Satamdhanus responsible for undermining the
and finally Brihadratha. The last prince was strength of the empire.
overthrown by his commander-in-chief,
Pushyamitra, who laid the foundations of a The second argument blames Ashoka‘s
new dynasty called Sunga dynasty. emphasis on nonviolence for weakening the
empire and its military strength. Haraprasad
Causes for the Decline of the Mauryas: Sastri holds the view that the decline of the
Mauryan Empire was the result of the
The Magadhan Empire, which had been Brahmanical revolt on account of ban on
reared by successive wars culminating in the animal sacrifices and undermining the
conquest of Kalinga, began to disintegrate prestige of the Brahmanas. Both these
after the death of Ashoka in 232 B.C. The arguments are rather simplistic.
reason given by historians for such, rapid
declines are as conflicting as they are Pushyamitra‘s usurpation of the throne
confusing. cannot be seen as a brahmana revolt because
by that time the administration had become
Some of the very obvious and other so ineffective that officials were willing to
controversial causes for the decline of the accept any viable alternative.
Mauryan Empire are discussed below:
The second proposition does not take into
1. One of the more obvious reasons for account the nature of the policy of non-
the decline was the succession of violence. There is nothing in the Ashokan
weak kings after Ashoka. inscriptions to suggest demobilization of the
2. A further and immediate cause was army. Similarly capital punishment
the partition of the empire into two, continued. The emphasis was on the reduc-
the eastern part under Dasaratha and tion of species, and numbers of animals
the western part under Kunala. Had killed for food. There is nothing to suggest
the partition not taken place, the that the killing of animals stopped
Greek invasions of the north-west completely.
could have been held back for a

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 Module 1 (History)

4. Another reason put forward by some 7. The spread of material culture of the
historians such as D.D. Kosambi is Gangetic basin to the outlying areas
that there was considerable pressure led to the formation of new
on the Mauryan economy under the kingdoms.
later rulers leading to heavy taxation.

This opinion is again one-sided and is not

corroborated by archaeological data. The Kushanas : Kanishka
Excavations at sites like Hastinapura and
Sisupalgarh have shown improvement in the : Extent of empire, His
material culture. religious policy;
Development of Art,
5. The organization of administration,
and the conception of the state or the Architecture and Letters
nation, were of great significance in during the Kushana
the causes of the decline of the period
Mauryas. The Mauryan
administration was of an extremely The Kushanas: Short introduction
centralized character which
necessitated a king of considerable In the early 2nd century BC, a tribe on the
personal ability. Central Asian frontier of China called
Hsiung-nu defeated a neighboring one
In such a situation the weakening of the known as Yueh-chih. After more conflict,
central control leads automatically to a the survivors of the Yueh-chih were
weakening of the administration. With the dislocated west, passing down the Ili river
death of Ashoka and the uneven quality of valley and along the southern shore of lake
his successors, there was a weakening at the Issyk Kul. This movement also pushed Saka
centre, particularly after the division of the tribes (and others) ahead of them. Sometime
empire. between 145 and 125 BC, these nomad
invaders burst into Bactria and Parthia. A
6. The Mauryan state derived its generation later, they were pressing into the
revenues from taxing a variety of Kabul valley and onto the Punjab plain. At
resources which would have to grow around the beginning of the Christian era,
and expand so that the administrative one of the five Yueh-chih chiefs, K'iu-tsiu-
apparatus of the state could be k'io, attacked and defeated the others,
maintained. leaving his clan in control; the Kuei-shang
(Kushans).
Unfortunately the Mauryas made no attempt
to expand the revenue potential or to Kujula Kadphises (30-80 AD) established
restructure and reorganise the resources. the Kushan dynasty in 78 AD by taking
This inherent weakness of the Mauryan advantage of disunion in existing dynasty of
economy when coupled with other factors Pahalava (Parthian) and Scytho-Parthians,
led to the collapse of the Mauryan Empire. and gradually wrested control of southern

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 Module 1 (History)

prosperous region, which is the northwest after him (described by Kalhan in

part of ancient India, traditionally known as Rajatarangini). Kushana empire was at its
Gandhara (now Pakistan). It was his zenith during Kanishka's and Huvishka's
grandson Vima Kadphises who made reign. After Huvishka's reign, Vasudeva I
Kushan a paramount power of northern took control of this dynasty which by then
India. His reign saw emergence of Kushan had lost control over regions beyond Bactria
empire when he conquored north-western or perhaps the Bactria itself. The Kushan
India (modern Punjab). Soon he came under dynasty had been totally assimilated in
influence of Hinduism (most likley Indian culture. Vasudeva I was the last great
embraced it for good) and took opportunity king of the dynasty when Kushana empire
to proclaim himself Mahishwara, another was at it's height of splendor and prosperity.
name for Lord Shiva, on his coins (Shiva is
a prominent Hindu god). Kushan kings Kushan empire had started its decline soon
introduced gold and copper coins, a large after Vasudeva's death. Vasudeva was
number of them have survived till today. It followed by his son Kanishka II who lost all
was the Kushan emperor, Vima Kadaphises the territories west of river Indus to
who introduced the first gold coins of india. Sassanians. Vasudeva II, Vashishka, and
Kushan empire covered north west of India Shaka are the kings who followed after the
(includes Pakistan and modern Afganistan) Kanisha II. After Vashishka the Kushan
and northern India. Ample evidences of empire had completly disintegrated into few
trade with China, cental Asia, Egypt and small kingdoms. By fourth century AD this
Rome are available which made their dynasty went into total obscurity with
economy very strong and kingdom wealthy advent of mighty Gupta emperors.
and prosperous.

Vima's able son Kanishka (100 - 126 AD)

followed and took control of this dynasty in Kanishka:
100 AD. Kanishka is the legendary ruler of
ancient India and according to most His Date:
historians the greatest ruler of Kushan
dynasty. He and his descendents called There is a sharp controversy about
themselves `Devputra' which means son of Kanishka’s date centering round two
god, who ruled Aryavarta, the India. He points:
established an era, commonly known as
Shaka era, starts from 78 AD. Shaka era is (1) Whether the Kanishka group preceded or
still in use in India. Kanishka's empire succeeded the Kadphises group, and
consisted Bactria (modern Afghanistan),
part of central Asia (Tajikistan), north- (2) Whether Kanishka started his rule in 78
western India (modern Pakistan) and A.D. or later or earlier.
Northern India till Pataliputra or Patana.
Kushan empire. (1) Cunningham was the first writer to
sponsor the theory that Kanishka‘s era
Huvishka succeeded Kanishka I. He was started from 58 B.C. which came to be
founder of a city Hushka in Kashmir named

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 Module 1 (History)

known afterwards as Vikrama Samvat: Kadphises from the line of the Indo-Greeks
Cunningham, however, gave up this theory a different method was followed and
later on, but Fleet and after him Kennedy continued by Kanishka and his successors.
held this view with all earnestness. As a These two different sequences when
corollary of the above contention it follows compared leave no doubt that the Kushana
that Kanishka group of kings preceded group followed Kadphises group of kings.
Kadphises group of kings.
Turning to the second point, we find that
But on a careful analysis of the scholars like Sir John Marshall, Sten
archaeological and numismatic evidences Konow, Vincent Smith, Van Wijk and some
scholars have come to the conclusion that other scholars are of the opinion that
there can be no doubt that the Kanishka Kanishka began his rule in the first quarter
group of kings did not precede but followed of the second century A.D., sometime
the Kadphises group of kings. between 125 to 128 A.D. which lasted for
about a quarter of a century.
In support of this view scholars point out if
the series of coins issued successively by But Ferguson had held long before that
alien rulers of India upto Vasudeva-I, are Kanishka started his first regional year in 78
carefully studied it will be evident that the A.D. and inaugurated an era from that date
coins of the Kadphises kings were issued which came to be known as the Saka era
immediately after those of the Sakas and the (Sakabda) which is still current in different
Parthians. parts of India. Ferguson‘s view has been
supported by scholars like Oldenberg,
Again, the coins of Kanishka and Huvishka, Thomas, Rapson, R. D. Banerjee, Dr.
although differ in some details, they seem to Raichaudhuri and others. One of the latest
be largely prototypes of Wima Kadiphises. scholars to support the view that Kanishka
started his rule in 78 A.D. which was also
It must also be noted that the practice of the beginning of an era is Van Lohuizen-de
issuing bilingual and by scriptural coins Leeuw.
introduced by the Indo-Greek kings was
continued throughout the Saka-Pahlava It has been argued against the above view
period upto the time of Kadphises. The held by most of the scholars, that if we agree
continuity of the practice without break till that Kadphises-I reigned about 50 A.D. and
the time of Wima Kadphises was broken Kanishka about 78 A.D. then we are left
only at the time of Kanishka who gave up with only 28 years roughly for the two
the practice of issuing bilingual coins. reigns of Kadphises-I and Kadphises-II
which is a very short span for two reigns.
The legend of his coins was Greek but most But when we remember that Kadphises died
of them were not, however, in Greek. at the age of eighty, his son Kadphises-II
Hurishka and Vasudeva followed the must have ascended the throne at pretty old
practice of Kanishka. Thus we find that age. This makes accession of Kanishka in 78
while there was a continuity in the method AD. quite tenable.
of the striking coins followed upto Wima

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Marshall, Sten Konow and others who are of It has been contended by some scholars that
the opinion that Kanishka ruled in the first if the era was founded by Kanishka why
quarter of the second century A.D. is- should it have been named Saka era and not
directly against the evidence of Junagarh Kushana era, after all the Kushanas were not
inscription of Rudradamana. Dr. Sakas. But it may be pointed out that the
Raichaudhuri draws our attention to the fact close association of the Yue-chi people of
that it is clearly mentioned in the Junagarh which the Kushanas were a branch, with the
inscription that Rudradamana held sway Saka-Pahlava made them a composite
over the lower Sindhu region in the first half people with a composite culture in which the
of the second century A.D. contributions of the Sakas was quite large.

The South Bihar (Sui-Bihar) inscription of Further, the Kushanas were not Greeks but
Kanishka mentions lower Sindhu area as some of Kanishka‘s coins bore Greek legend
within the dominions of Kanishka. on them. It is therefore no conclusive
Obviously, both Rudradamana and Kanishka argument to say that since the era was called
were not rulers over the same region Saka era Kanishka could not be its founder.
simultaneously. This proves the untenability Likewise the contention that the Saka era
of the view that Kanishka ruled in the was not followed in northern India although
second century A.D. There is also no Kanishka was a ruler of the north is
evidence to show that there was the untenable.
inauguration of any era in the second
century A.D. Facts are, however, otherwise. This era was
abandoned temporarily during the Gupta
Dr. Majumdar‘s contention that Kanishka rule when it was confined to the south where
was the founder of Traikutaka-Kalachuri- its use was spread by the Jainas. But with
Chedi era of 248-249 A.D. is absolutely the end of the Gupta rule the Saka era came
untenable in view of the Chinese evidence back into use and Continues to be used even
that An-Shi-Kao who lived during the today in different parts of India.
second century A.D. translated a work
Margabhumi-sutra written by Sangharaksha, Thus after an analysis of evidences, literary,
chaplain of Kanishka. This precludes plac- numismatic as well as epigraphic, the
ing Kanishka in the third century A.D. as balance of arguments remains in favour of
Dr. R. C. Majumdar has done. Dr. R. G. placing the Kanishka group of kings after
Bhandarkar‘s view that Kanishka ascended the Kadphises group of kings and fixing 78
the throne in 278 A.D. is untenable on the A.D. as the starting point of Kanishka‘s rule,
same grounds. and also the beginning of the era known as
Saka era or Sakavda.
Thus most of the scholars are of the view
that Kanishka started his rule in 78 A.D. His Conquests: Extent of His Empire:
which was also the year from which the
Saka era is counted. Kanishka was alone among the Kushana
kings who has left a name cherished by

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 Module 1 (History)

tradition and famous in India as well beyond evidence proves the inclusion of Malwa in
her limits. his empire. Sylvan Levi, D. C. Sircar and
Rapson suggest that the western Satrap
At the time of accession to the throne Nahapana who ruled over Kathiawar, Malwa
Kanishka‘s empire comprised Afghanistan, and Sourashtra had been a vassal of
large part of Sindhu, portions of Parthia and Kanishka. Some scholars hold that it was
the Punjab. He appears to have not forgotten Chastana who was defeated by Kanishka
to avenge the defeat of his predecessor and was compelled to hand over a part of
Kadphises at the hands of the Chinese Malwa to him.
general Pan-chao. He also played the part of
a conqueror in the early years of his reign. According to Dr. Smith, Kanishka also
Dr. Smith credits him with the conquest and waged war against the Parthians. Kanishka
annexation of the Kashmir Valley. He also conquered Kashgarh, Khotan and
certainly showed, remarks Smith, a marked Yarkhand. He is credited with defeating the
preference for that delightful country. Chinese and thereby avenging the defeat of
his predecessor Kadphises II at the hands of
Here he erected numerous monuments and the Chinese general Pan-chao and compelled
founded a town, which although now the Chinese to surrender hostages to him.
reduced to a petty village, still bears his
honoured name. We have, however, no From the Chinese source as also from
details about the war with the king of Buddhist traditions we come to know
Kashmir. Rajatarangini refers to three kings Kanishka conquered Kajangal in the
Hushka, Jushka and Kanishka who are Rajmahal hills in Bengal, some parts of
described as decendants of Turuksha ruler Malda, Murshidabad, Bogra, Midnapur, etc.
and were given to acts of piety and built But in absence of any other evidences to
monasteries, Chaityas and similar other support the indirect evidence furnished by
structures. the find spots of the coins of Kanishka it is
difficult to come to any definite conclusion
According to tradition Kanishka penetrated with regard to the inclusion of Bengal in
into the interior of India and attacked Kanishka‘s empire.
Pataliputra, the capital of Magadha. It is said
that he carried away Asvaghosh, a Buddhist Kanishka‘s empire comprised vast tacts of
tradition, after the capture of Pataliputra and land extending from Afghanistan, and
Buddhist Philosopher Asvaghosa fell into Khotan, Yarkhand, Kashgarh, etc. in Central
the hands of Kanishka who took the saga Asia to Benares, and perhaps to parts of
with him. Asvaghosa was indeed one of the Bengal. His empire included Gandhara,
luminaries that graced the court of Peshawar, Oudh, Pataliputra, Mathura.
Kanishka. We may, therefore, conclude that Inclusion of Kashmir is borne out by both
at least a part of Magadha including the Chinese and Buddhist evidences. The
Pataliputra was conquered by Kanishka. western Satrapies seem to have been under
his suzerainty.
Kanishka seems to have waged war against
the western Satraps of Ujjaini. Numismatic

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According to Hiuen TSang Kanishka Raja of outside India. It was in connection with his
Gandhara in old days having subdued all the missionary activities that he established
neighbouring provinces and brought into close relationship, religious cultural and
obedience the people of distant countries, commercial, not only with China, Tibet and
governed by his army a wide territory even Central Asia but also with Rome and influx
to the east of the Tsung-ling mountains. All of gold from China and Rome in particular.
this proves that Kanishka‘s sway extended The prosperity of the empire attested by the
beyond the borders of India. fine gold coins struck by Kadphises I
appears to have increased under Kanishka.
The Buddhist tradition and Kanishka‘s own The unmistakable influence of Rome on the
inscriptions are ample testimony to the vast Indian coinage of the time could be noticed.
expanse of his dominions within India.
Selection of Purushapura, i.e. Peshawar, From the Periplus we know that gold and
proves that Kanishka‘s imperial possessions silver specie constituted one of the imports
spread far towards the west and north. of Barygaza, i.e., Borach, a port on the
eastern sea board of India. Swell has also
mentioned to huge hoard of Roman coins of
the first five Roman emperors discovered in
Administration: the Madras Presidency. The very name
dinara of gold coins seems to have close
Kanishka was a mighty conqueror, but no affinity with the Roman denarius and drama
less was his ability as an administrator and for silver coins has been adopted from the
he was even mightier in peaceful pursuits Greek drachma.
and in his solicitousness of the welfare of
the people. For an effective and efficient Kanishka assumed epithet like Shaonaus
rule of the empire he resorted to the system Shoo, as found on his coins, was an
of Satrapies and appointed Mahakshatrapa adaptation of the Parthian title Basileos
Kharapallana and Kshatrapa Vanaspara in Basileon. From Shaonaus Shoo the letter
the eastern part of the empire. Shaahan Sha was derived.

The northern part was ruled by General Lala Religion:

as Mahakshatrapa with Vaspasi and Laika as
Kshatrapas. The seat of the Central As it is customary for the Buddhist writers
Government was at Purushpura or Peshawar. to depict a person wicked before conversion
This practice of rule through Great Satraps and turned into saint after conversion to
and Satraps was the continuation of the Buddhism. Kanishka has been described by
system followed by the Sakas and the them to be devoid of the sense of right or
Pahlavas. wrong before his conversion. This view of
the Buddhist writers has not been accepted
We find a conscious emulation of the by most of the scholars who think that it is
methods of Asoka by the Kushana king an attempt on the part of the Buddhist
Kanishka. He pursued the policy of writers to glorify Buddhism.
propagating Buddhism both within India and

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Before conversion to Buddhism Kanishka Buddhism. The celebrated Chaitya it

was a believer in many gods, Persian, Greek, Peshawar constructed under his orders
Hindu, etc. This is proved by the figures excited the wonder and appreciation of
imprinted on his coins. The exact date of travellers down to a late period and famous
conversion of Kanishka is, however, not sculptures therein included a life-size statue
known. The conversion is supposed to have of himself.
taken place after some years he had been on
the throne. It is supposed that after his During his time there arose disputes about
association with the Buddhist philosopher Buddhism, among 18 schools of Buddhism
and Saint Asvaghosha, he must have come prevalent at that time, as we know from the
under his influence. Tibetan historian Taranath. It became
necessary to restore the disputes and to that
Asvaghosha must have won the heart of end Kanishka convoked the Fourth Buddhist
Kanishka so completely that the latter gave Council to which was attended by 500
up his allegiance to his previous gods and monks.
got converted to Buddhism. Here is a second
instance of a great conqueror and emperor There is a controversy with regard to the
being converted to Buddhism and taken to venue of the Council. According to some it
the policy of peace and brotherliness in was held at Kundavana in Kashmir but
place of the policy of military conquests. others hold that it met at Jullundur in the
Punjab. In the Council the entire Buddhist
Kanishka was a close copy of Asoka. What literature was thoroughly examined and
is specially noteworthy about Kanishka is commentaries on the three Pitakas were
that he was the only foreigner who became a prepared, which were compiled in
convert to an Indian religion and turned into Mahavibhasha which is the greatest work on
zealous missionary. In his missionary Buddhist Philosophy.
activities we find him to an emulator of
Asoka whose footsteps he tried to follow This voluminous work is considered to be
closely. the encyclopaedia of Buddhism. The
decisions of the Council were inscribed in
We renovated the old monasteries which copper plates and deposited in a stupa built
were in a state of disrepair and built many a for the purpose, packed in stone chests.
new one. He endowed the monasteries with Vasumitra acted as the President and
liberal money grants for the maintenance of Asvaghosha as the Vice-President of the
the monks who dwelt in them. Kanishka Council.
caused the construction of a number of
stupas in the memory of Sakyamuni.

He also sent missionaries for the Buddhist Council:

propagation of Buddhism to China, Tibet,
Japan and Central Asia. The sculptors, The period of Kanishka saw the
painters, as well as the architects of his time transformation of the Hinayana form of
also became active propagandists of Buddhism into Mahayana form. In the

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Hinayana form the worship of Buddha was He was a versatile genius whose
only by relics like footprint of Buddha, an contributions to the cultural life of the time
empty seat of Buddha, that is, some sort of centred round poetry, philosophy, drama,
symbol used to be placed in front of the music. Buddhacharit and Sutralankar are his
worshipper. two most famous works. Buddhacharit on
the life of Gautama Buddha in Sanskrit
There used to be no figure or image of verse has been regarded as a Buddhist epic.
Buddha to worship. This needed great Another great Buddhist writer of fame who
concentration of mind on the part of the adorned the court of Kanishka was
worshipper and the method was very subtle Nagarjuna. He was the greatest exponent of
and could be followed by persons of great Mahayana Buddhism.
self-control, and of deepest religious bent of
mind. This method of proceeding along the Charaka, the celebrated master of the
Path of Buddhist religion was called Hina- science of medicine, was the court physician
Yana, i.e., lesser vehicle, i.e., subtle mode of of Kanishka. Mathara, a politician of great
transport in the path of religion. acumen, was a minister of Kanishka. Be-
sides these worthies, the Greek engineer
But during Kanishka‘s time worship of the Agesilaus and many others played a leading
image of Buddha came into use. It became part in the religious, literary, scientific,
easy to concentrate by keeping as visible philosophical and artistic activities of the
representation of Buddha in form. This was reign. It is of great interest to know that
a greater and easier method hence called Nagarjuna in his celebrated work
Mahayana Buddhism. In the Hinayana form Madhyamikasutra expounded the theory of
of worship emphasis was laid on good relativity in its preliminary form.
action but in Mahayana system worship of
Buddha and Bodhisattvas was emphasised. Another celebrity that adorned the court of
The use of Pali as the language of the Kanishka was Vasumitra who presided over
Buddhist religious books was now replaced the Fourth Buddhist Council held during the
by Sanskrit. reign of Kanishka.

Art and Learning: Kanishka was also a great builder and a

patron of art and architecture. The works of
Kanishka‘s patronage of art and learning architecture, art of sculpture of his time are
marked the beginning of a cultural found in Mathura, Peshawar, Taxila and
renaissance which was to reach its peak and Amaravati. The Sirsukh city in Taxila with
flower under the Guptas A large volume of its hall, buildings and monasteries was built
Sanskrit literary works both religious and by him. Statues, sculptures, monasteries
secular, was produced during the period. added to the beauty of the city.
Asvaghosha, the greatest Buddha
Philosopher, saint and literary figure of the The Gatidhara School of art was the product
time adorned the court of Kanishka. of Graeco-Roman-Buddhist school of art
and sculpture. Totally indigenous art also
flourished during his reign at Amaravati.

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The ornamental sculpture depicted in the He patronized the Buddhist philosophers

Amaravati medallion bear testimony to the like Asvaghosha, Basumitra, Nagarjuna,
excellence of purely Indian style Political scientist like Mathara, medical
uninfluenced by any foreign art. At Mathura scientist like Charaka, and engineer like
find of Kanishka‘s headless statue is an Greek Agesilaus.
example of the massive sculptural art of the
time. He was a great patron of art and
architecture. The city of Purushapura, his
Estimate of Kanishka: capital, Taxila, Mathura were beautified by
monasteries, stupas, etc. The tall Chaitya at
Kanishka happens to be one of the few kings his capital with its sculpture forced the
in history who came in as a conqueror and admiration of visitors even after long time.
won an empire but was conquered by the
religion, language and culture of the country The beneficence of his rule was seem in the
of his conquest. He was an intrepid warrior, prosperity of the people resulting from the
a mighty conqueror but what was more he influx of huge quantity of gold by way of
was equally great as an administrator. If he trade with foreign countries like China,
was great in war and administration he was Rome, etc.
greater still in the arts of peace.
Kanishka has been likened to Asoka as a
He was a great patron of art and literature. conqueror, preacher. But although he was
He built a vast empire which extended from definitely a lesser personality than Great
Central Asia to Mathura, Benares and Asoka, he was the nearest emulator of
probably to parts of Bengal but he gave it an Asoka in his spirit of toleration of other
administration which brought peace and religions, patronage of Buddhism, and
prosperity to the country and the people, missionary zeal. He, however, was not an
which conduced to pursuit of religion, art, apostle of non-violence as Asoka had been
architecture and literature. Before his yet he had initiated a cultural renaissance
conversion to Buddhism he was eclectic in which reached its zenith under the Guptas.
his religious belief and was a polytheist.
Kanishka‘s reign constituted a brilliant
After becoming a Buddhist he became an epoch in the history of ancient India and the
ardent missionary of the Mahayanism. He darkness that descended on the Indian
rendered a great service to Buddhism by History after the fall of the Mauryas was
convening the Fourth Buddhist Council lifted during his reign. Kanishka rightly
which resolved the disputes that arose deserves a place among the best rulers of the
among the Buddhists about Buddhist ancient history of India.
religion. He was a great patron of Buddhism
as his predecessor of the Maurya Dynasty Art, Sculpture and Architecture in
Asoka. Like Asoka he sent missions for Kushana Empire
propagation of Buddhism in China, Japan,
Tibet, Central Asia, etc. The Kushana period witnessed a remarkable
development in art, sculpture and

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architecture. The Gandhara School of Art The technique of the Gandhara School of art
and Sculpture marked a happy blending of of the Kushana period spread through China
the Graceo-Romano-Buddhist style and to the Far East and influenced the art of
techniques. The distinguishing features of China and Japan. The Gandhara art,
the Gandhara Sculpture owed their origin to according to V. A. Smith, was based on the
Greek and Roman styles yet the art essen- cosmopolitan art of the Asia Minor and the
tially was Indian in spirit. The Gandhara Roman Empire.
artists had the hand of a Greek but the heart
of an India. There were also purely Indian schools of art
in India during the period of the Kushanas.
The most remarkable contribution of the There were the schools of art at Amaravati,
Gandhara School of art is to be seen in the Jagayyapeta and Nagarjunikonda. In the
evolution of the image of Buddha, perhaps Amaravati human figures are characterised
in imitation of the Greek God Apollo. by slim, blithe features and have been repre-
Images of Buddha and Bodhisatva sented in most difficult poses and curves.
illustrating the past and present lives of The technique of art reached a high standard
Buddha were executed in black stone. The of development. Plants and flowers,
figures show an excellent idea of human particularly lotuses, have been represented
anatomy that swayed the artists. in the most perfect, lifelike manner.

These works of art offer a striking contrast Two Chaityas and a Stupa discovered at
to similar art that we witness elsewhere in Nagarjunikonda are the relics of the
India. The smooth round features of the indigenous school of art and show a high
idealised human figures, draped in standard of development. The limestone
transparent and semi-transparent cloth panel of figures depicting the nativity of
closely fitting to the body and revealing its Buddha is an excellent piece of sculpture of
outline were due to the influence of the the Kushana period which was entirely
Hellenistic art of Asia Minor and the Roman indigenous.
Empire.
Architecture of the Kushana period was not
The images of Buddha pertaining to the so remarkable as the sculpture of the period.
Gandhara school centres of which were There were beautiful temples, monasteries,
Gandhara, Jalalabad, Hadda and Baniyan in Stupas which indicate considerable
Afghanistan, Peshawar and Swat Valley, development during the period although the
were more animated and anatomically technique of architecture did not attain the
perfect than those found in other parts of standard of excellence of sculpture. The
India. While the former are more beautiful famous tower of Kanishka at Purushapura
physically and accurate in anatomical details (Peshawar) was one of the wonders of the
as such more realistic, the Indian art and world. Much of the architectural specimens
sculpture which produced the images of of the period perished with time.
Buddha were more idealistic giving a
spiritual and sublime expression to the Caves hewn in solid rock with pillars and
images. sculptures, hundreds of which have been

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found in different parts of the Kushana 1. D. Banerjee‘s view that the

Empire show a great improvement upon the Gandhara art influenced the Indian
technique of excavation that was in use art for nearly five centuries to follow
during the time of Asoka. A Chaitya with is untenable on the ground that there
rows of columns on two sides was a fine were indigenous schools of art at
work of art of sculpture and architecture. Ainaravati, Nagarjunkonda, etc.
The Chaitya at Karle is an excellent where there was no influence of
illustration. Gandhara School of art. The
influence of the Gandhara art failed
Fa-hien who visited India during the rule of to penetrate into the interior of India
Chandragupta II {5th century) was struck and had no influence on the later
with wonder to find a large number of development of the Indian, art. But
Stupas, dagobas (small stupa), Chaityas and the Gandhara School of art achieved
images of Buddha carved out of stone a grand success in. becoming the
during the Kushana period. parent of the Buddhist art of Eastern
and Chinese Turkestan, Mongolia,
There has been a sharp difference of opinion China, Korea and Japan.
about the celebrity, and the extent of
influence of the Gandhara art upon the Literature:
Indian art during the reign of the Kushanas.
Modern scholars think that the Gandhara The Kushana period witnessed a remarkable
School of sculpture has attained a celebrity development of literature and Sanskrit
perhaps beyond its merits. language. Under the patronage enjoyed by
the scholars and Buddhist philosophers of
According to some European scholars, the the time a massive development in secular
Gandhara School of art was the only school and religious literature took place. A large
in Ancient India which can claim a place in number of standard works in Sanskrit
the domain of art. There are others who are language were written during the period.
of the opinion that the source of subsequent
development of Indian art as well as of the Asvaghosha‘s Buddhacharita, Saudarananda
Far East was the Gandhara School of art Kavya, Vajrasuchi, Sariputta Prakarana,
which developed as a result of a happy Vasumitra‘s Mahabibhasa—regarded as the
blending of the Graco-Romano-Buddhist art. Buddhist encyclopaedia, Nagarjuna‘s
Madhyamika-Sutra in which the theory of
But despite the foreign influence upon the relativity was propounded, Charaka‘s work
school of Gandhara art, scholars like Havell, on medicine, etc. contributed to the fund of
Will Durant, R. C. Majumdar and others are human knowledge. Under the Kushanas the
of the opinion that the influence, Hellenistic royal court became a seat of luminaries
and Roman, upon the Indian art which was mentioned above as also of the Political
the Gandhara School of art was technical but Scientist Mathara, Greek engineer
spirit and the subject matter of the art was Agesilaus, etc.
purely Indian.

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The Guptas : Extent of during the rule of Srigupta (circa 240 – 280
CE) comprised only Magadha and probably
empire; development of a part of Bengal too. Like the Mauryas and
language and Literature, other Magadha kings who preceded him,
art St architecture during Srigupta ruled from Pataliputra, close to
modern day Patna. Srigupta was succeeded
the Gupta period. to the throne by his son Ghatotkacha (circa
280 – 319 CE).
The Gupta Empire stretched across northern,
central and parts of southern India between CHANDRAGUPTA I
c. 320 and 550 CE. The period is noted for
its achievements in the arts, architecture, From the Kushans, the Gupta kings learned
sciences, religion, the benefit of maintaining a cavalry and
and philosophy. Chandragupta I (320 – 335 Chandragupta I, son of Ghatotkacha, made
CE) started a rapid expansion of effective use of his strong army. Through his
the Gupta Empire and soon established marriage with Licchhavi Princess
himself as the first sovereign ruler of the Kumaradevi, Chandragupta I received the
empire. It marked the end of 500 hundred ownership of rich mines full of iron ore
years of domination of the provincial powers adjacent to his kingdom. Metallurgy was
and resulting disquiet that began with the already at an advanced stage and forged iron
fall of the Mauryas. Even more importantly, was not only used to meet the internal
it began a period of overall prosperity and demands, but also became a valuable trade
growth that continued for the next two and commodity. The territorial heads ruling over
half centuries which came to be known as a various parts of India could not counter the
―Golden Age‖ in India‘s history. But the superior armed forces of Chandragupta I and
seed of the empire was sown at least two had to surrender before him. It is
generations earlier than this when Srigupta, conjectured that at the end of his reign, the
then only a regional monarch, set off the boundary of the Gupta Empire already
glory days of this mighty dynasty in circa extended to Allahabad.
240 CE.
SAMUDRAGUPTA
GUPTA PERIOD – EARLY DAYS TO
THE ZENITH Samudragupta (circa 335 – 375 CE),
Chandragupta I‘s son who ascended the
Not much is known about the early days of throne next, was a military genius and he
this Gupta dynasty. The travel diaries and continued the growth of the kingdom. After
writings of Buddhist monks who frequented conquering the remainder of North India,
this part of the world are the most Samudragupta turned his eyes to South India
trustworthy sources of information we have and added a portion of it to his empire by the
about those days. The travelogues of Fa end of his Southern Campaign. It is
Hien (Faxian, circa 337 – 422 CE), Hiuen generally believed that during his time the
Tsang (Xuanzang, 602 – 664 CE) and Yijing Gupta Empire spanned from the Himalayas
(I Tsing, 635 – 713 CE) prove to be in north to the mouth of Krishna and
invaluable in this respect. The Gupta Empire

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Godavari rivers in the South, from Balkh, Ramagupta gave up Dhruvadevi to his
Afghanistan in the west to the Brahmaputra opponent. It is then Ramagupta‘s younger
River in the east. brother Chandragupta II with a few of his
close aides went to meet the enemy in
Samudragupta was very attentive disguise. He rescued Dhruvadevi and
to rajdharma (duties of a king) and took assassinated the Scythian king. Dhruvadevi
special care to follow Kautilya‘s (350 – 275 publicly condemned her husband for his
BCE) Arthashastra (an economic, social and behaviour. Eventually, Ramagupta was
political treatise that has clear instructions killed by Chandragupta II who also married
about how a monarchy should be governed) Dhruvadevi sometime later.
closely. He donated large sums of money for
various philanthropic purposes, including Like Samudragupta, Chandragupta II (circa
the promotion of education. Besides being a 380 – 414 CE) was a benevolent king, able
courageous king and able administrator, he leader and skilled administrator. By
was a poet and musician. The large number defeating the satrap of Saurashtra, he further
of gold coins circulated by him showcases expanded his kingdom to the coastline of the
his multifaceted talent. An inscription, Arabian Sea. His courageous pursuits earned
probably commissioned by subsequent him the title of Vikramaditya. To rule the
Gupta kings, known as the Allahabad Pillar vast empire more efficiently, Chandragupta
is most eloquent about his humane II founded his second capital in Ujjain. He
qualities. Samudragupta also believed in also took care to strengthen the navy. The
promoting goodwill among various religious seaports of Tamralipta and Sopara
communities. He gave, for example, consequently became busy hubs of maritime
Meghavarna, king of Ceylon, permission trade. He was a great patron of art and
and support for the construction of a culture too. Some of the greatest scholars of
monastery in Bodh Gaya. the day including the navaratna (nine gems)
graced his court. Numerous charitable
CHANDRAGUPTA II institutions, orphanages and hospitals
benefitted from his generosity. Rest houses
A short struggle for power appears to have for travellers were set up by the road side.
ensued after the reign of Samudragupta. His The Gupta Empire reached its pinnacle
eldest son Ramagupta became the next during this time and unprecedented progress
Gupta king. This was noted by 7th century marked all areas of life.
CE Sanskrit author Banbhatta in his
biographical work, Harshacharita. What POLITICS & ADMINISTRATION
followed next forms a part of Sanskrit poet
and playwright Visakh Dutta‘s Great tact and foresight were shown in the
drama DeviChandra Guptam. As the story governance of the vast empire. The
goes, Ramagupta was soon overcome by a efficiency of their martial system was well
Scythian king of Mathura. But the Scythian known. The large kingdom was divided into
king, besides the kingdom itself, was smaller pradesha (provinces) and
interested in Queen Dhruvadevi who was administrative heads were appointed to take
also a renowned scholar. To maintain peace care of them. The kings maintained

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discipline and transparency in the Africa, silk and some medicinal plants
bureaucratic process. Criminal law was from China and the Far East were high on
mild, capital punishment was unheard of and the list of imports. Food, grain, spices, salt,
judicial torture was not practised. Fa Hien gems and gold bullion were primary
called the cities of Mathura and Pataliputra commodities of inland trade.
as picturesque with the latter being
described as a city of flowers. People could RELIGION
move around freely. Law and order reigned
and, according to Fa Hien, incidents of theft Gupta kings knew that the well-being of the
and burglary were rare. empire lie in maintaining a cordial
relationship between the various
The following also speaks volumes about communities. They were
the prudence of the Gupta kings. devout Vaishnava (Hindus who worship the
Samudragupta acquired a far greater part of Supreme Creator as Vishnu) themselves, yet
southern India than he cared to incorporate that did not prevent them from being
into his empire. Therefore, in quite a few tolerant towards the believers
cases, he returned the kingdom to the of Buddhism and Jainism. Buddhist
original kings and was satisfied only with monasteries received liberal donations.
collecting taxes from them. He reckoned Yijing observed how the Gupta kings
that the great distance between that part of erected inns and rest houses for Buddhist
the country and his capital Pataliputra would monks and other pilgrims. As a pre-eminent
hinder the process of good governance. site of education and cultural exchange
Nalanda prospered under their patronage.
SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONDITIONS Jainism flourished in northern Bengal,
Gorakhpur, Udayagiri and Gujarat. Several
People led a simple life. Commodities were Jain establishments existed across the
affordable and all round prosperity ensured empire and Jain councils were a regular
that their requirements were met easily. occurrence.
They preferred vegetarianism and shunned
alcoholic beverages. Gold and silver coins LITERATURE, SCIENCES &
were issued in great numbers which is a EDUCATION
general indicative of the health of the
economy. Trade and commerce flourished Sanskrit once again attained the status of
both within the country and outside. Silk, a lingua franca and managed to scale even
cotton, spices, medicine, priceless greater heights than before. Poet and
gemstones, pearl, precious metal and steel playwright Kalidasa created such epics
were exported by sea. Highly evolved as Abhijnanasakuntalam, Malavikagnimitra
steelcraft led everyone to a belief that Indian m, Raghuvansha and Kumarsambhaba.
iron was not subject to corrosion. The 7 m Harishena, a renowned poet, panegyrist and
(23 ft) high Iron Pillar in Qutub complex, flutist, composed Allahabad Prasasti,
Delhi, built around 402 CE, is a testimony to Sudraka wrote Mricchakatika,
this fact. Trade relations with Middle East Vishakhadatta created Mudrarakshasa and
improved. Ivory, tortoise shell etc. from Vishnusharma penned Panchatantra.

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Vararuchi, Baudhayana, Ishwar Krishna and in Ajanta, Ellora, Sarnath, Mathura,

Bhartrihari contributed to both Sanskrit and Anuradhapura and Sigiriya. The basic tenets
Prakrit linguistics, philosophy and science. of Shilpa Shasrta (Treatise on Art) were
followed everywhere including in town
Varahamihira wrote Brihatsamhita and also planning. Stone studded golden stairways,
contributed to the fields of astronomy and iron pillars (The iron pillar of Dhar is twice
astrology. Genius mathematician and the size of Delhi‘s Iron Pillar), intricately
astronomer Aryabhata designed gold coins, jewellery and metal
wrote Surya Siddhanta which covered sculptures speak volumes about the skills of
several aspects of geometry, trigonometry the metalsmiths. Carved ivories, wood and
and cosmology. Shanku devoted himself to lac-work, brocades and embroidered textile
creating texts about Geography. also thrived. Practicing vocal music, dance
Dhanvantri‘s discoveries helped the Indian and seven types of musical instruments
medicinal system of ayurveda become more including veena (an Indian musical stringed
refined and efficient. Doctors were skilled in instrument), flute and mridangam (drum)
surgical practices and inoculation against were a norm rather than exception. These
contagious diseases was performed. Even were regularly performed in temples as a
today, Dhanvantri‘s birth anniversary is token of devotion. In classic Indian style,
celebrated on Dhanteras, two days before artists and litterateurs were encouraged to
Diwali. This intellectual surge was not meditate on the imagery within and capture
confined to the courts or among the royalty. its essence in their creations.
People were encouraged to learn the nuances As Agni Purana suggests, ―O thou Lord of
of Sanskrit literature, oratory, intellectual all gods, teach me in dreams how to carry
debate, music and painting. Several out all the work I have in my mind.‖
educational institutions were set up and the
existing ones received continuous support. DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE

ART, ARCHITECTURE & CULTURE After the demise of his father Chandragupta
II, Kumaragupta I (circa 415 – 455 CE)
What philosopher and historian Ananda ruled over the vast empire with skill and
Coomaraswamy said in The Arts & Crafts of ability. He was able to maintain peace and
India & Ceylone, about the art of the region even fend off strong challenges from a tribe
must be remembered here, known as Pushyamitra. He was helped by
his able son Skandagupta (455 – 467 CE)
The Hindus do not regard the religious, who was the last of the sovereign rulers of
aesthetic, and scientific standpoints as the Gupta Dynasty. He also succeeded in
necessarily conflicting, and in all their finest preventing the invasion of
work, whether musical, literary, or plastic, the Huns (Hephthalites). Skandagupta was a
these points of view, nowadays so sharply great scholar and wise ruler. For the well
distinguished, are inseparably united. being of the denizens he carried out several
construction works including the rebuilding
The finest examples of painting, sculpture of a dam on Sudarshan Lake, Gujarat. But
and architecture of the period can be found these were the last of the glory days of the
empire.

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After Skandagupta‘s death the dynasty India, the land beyond the Indus river, has
became embroiled with domestic conflicts. seen many rulers who dreamt of conquering
The rulers lacked the capabilities of the the vast country and rule from the
earlier emperors to rule over such a large Himalayas in the north to Deccan in south,
kingdom. This resulted in a decline in law from the mountains of Kandhar in the west
and order. They were continuously plagued to Assam in the east, yet very few have been
by the attacks of the Huns and other foreign able to subdue history according to their
powers. This put a dent in the economic will. Harshavardhana was one such ruler.
well-being of the empire. On top of this, the His empire may not be as large as the great
kings remained more occupied with self- Mauryan's, yet he deserves special mention.
indulgence than in preparing to meet with After the fall of great Gupta Empire in the
the challenges of their enemies. The inept middle of the 6th century CE, under whom
ministers and administrative heads also India saw its own golden age, it was
followed suit. Notably, after the defeat and Harshavardhana who unified most of
capture of Mihirakula, one of the most northern India and ruled for four decades
important Hephthalite emperors of the time, from his capital Kannauj.
Gupta King Baladitya set him free on the
advice of his ministers. The Huns came back RISE TO POWER & MILITARY
to haunt the empire later and finally drew CAMPAIGNS
the curtains on this illustrious empire in
circa 550. The following lines of King The Vardhana dynasty was started by
Sudraka‘s Mricchakatika (The Little Clay Prabhakarana Vardhana who ruled the
Cart) aptly sum up the rise and fall in the kingdom of Thaneshwar, modern-day
fortune of the Gupta Dynasty. Haryana. Prabhakarana‘s queen Yasovati
gave birth to two sons Rajyavardhana and
Harshawardhana and a daughter named
Rajyashri who was later married to king
Harsha-Vardhan : The Grahvarmana of Kanyakubja, modern-day
Kannauj. This was a period of tension as
last great Hindu ruler of India had to frequently deal with the
Northern India; cultural invasion of the Huns of Central Asia. Once,
achievements during his emperor Skandagupta of the Gupta Empire
laid a crushing defeat on these barbaric
period. tribes, yet these constant fights were so
costly that they weakened the empire to the
Emperor Harshavardhana, better known core, and this eventually led to the downfall
as Harsha, lived from 590 to 647 CE and of the Gupta Empire. As the western
was the third ruler of the Vardhana Empire, frontiers of India and areas adjoining the
the last great empire in ancient India before Indus river were under the occupation of
the Islamic Invasion. He ruled from 606 CE Huns, skirmishes between Huns and
to 647 CE. After Harshavardhana‘s death, Thaneshwar were regular. While Harsha and
however, the Vardhana dynasty came to an his brother were busy dealing with the Huns
end and its empire dissolved. in the west, king Prabhakarana died in

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Thaneshwar. He was succeeded by his elder Rescuing his sister, he rejoined his army at
son, Rajyavardhana. the bank of Ganges. After this, Harsha easily
conquered Kannauj as Sasaka went back to
AFTER HIS BROTHER’S DEATH, AT THE Bengal, and thus began a long enmity. It was
AGE OF 16, HARSHAVARDHANA only after Sasaka‘s death that Harsha was
BECAME THE UNDISPUTED RULER OF able to control entire eastern India
THANESHWAR AND DECLARED WAR ON including Magadha, Bengal and Kalinga.
SASAKA TO AVENGE HIS BROTHER AND
EMBARKED UPON A CAMPAIGN Harsha‘s Digvijay, or the conquest of the
OF DIGVIJAY, I.E. TO CONQUER THE world had now begun. After Kannauj, he
WORLD. turned his attention towards Gujarat. He
defeated the local Valabhi kingdom and
Meanwhile, in the east far greater events expanded his empire. Yet, this rapid
were happening which altered the course of expansion led to tensions between him and
history. Sasaka, king of Gauda, modern-day the Chalukya king Pulakesin II. It was now
Bengal, marched and killed king that the most powerful kingdoms of northern
Grahvarmana, Rajyashri‘s husband, and then and southern India came face-to-face on the
kidnapped her. The kidnapping of his sister battlefield on the banks of river Narmada. In
forced the elder Vardhana brother to march the end, the southerners under the
east and confront Sasaka. Sasaka then able leadership of Pulakesin II prevailed
invited Rajyavardhana for a meeting and leaving the ambitious northern ruler, Harsha,
treacherously killed him. After his brother‘s defeated. They say Harsha lost his cheer
death, at the age of 16, Harshavardhana when he saw his elephants dying in
became the undisputed ruler of Thaneshwar the battle.
and declared war on Sasaka to avenge his
brother and embarked upon a campaign Harsha entered a peace treaty with the
of Digvijay, i.e. to conquer the world (which Chalukya king, which established Narmada
in this context means conquering whole river as the southern boundary of his empire
India). Yet, his foremost enemy was now and after that he never advanced south
Sasaka who had to face an angry brother‘s again. Yet, this did not halt his conquest of
wrath. Harsha issued a proclamation to all the north. He took the title
kings known to either declare allegiance to of sakal uttara patha natha (lord of northern
him or face him on the battlefield. As India). Hieun Tsang tells us that:
Sasaka‘s enemies responded to Harsha‘s
call, he marched on to Kannuaj. He waged incessant warfare, until in six
years he had fought thr five
Although there is no evidence, a story in Indians(referring to five largest kingdoms).
Harshacharitra claims that Rajyashri, when Then, having enlarges his territory, he
released from prison, took refuge in the increased his army, bringing the elephant
forest of Vindhyas. Hearing this, Harsha corps upto 60,000 and the cavalry upto
hurriedly went into the forest to save her and 100,000, and reigned in peace for thirty
found her just when she was about to years without raising a weapon (Majumdar,
commit suicide by throwing herself in a fire. 252).

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Yet many historians believe his claim may An azure pool winds around the
be exaggerated. Still, this gives a glimpse of monasteries, adorned with the full-blown
his military prowess. cups of the blue lotus; the dazzling red
flowers of the lovely kanaka hang here and
The Vardhana Empire consisted of two there, and outside groves of mango trees
distinctive types of territories: areas directly offer the inhabitants their dense and
under Harsha's rule such as Central protective shade (Grousset,158,159).
Provinces, Gujarat, Bengal, Kalinga,
Rajputana, and the states and kingdoms In its heyday, Nalanda had around 10,000
which had become feudatories under him students and 2,000 teachers. The admission
including Jalandhar, Kashmir, Nepal, Sind, process was very strict. Records say there
Kamarupa (modern-day Assam). Thus, was a rigorous oral examination conducted
many historians do not find the title justified by gatekeepers, and many used to be
as he was never able to bring the entire north rejected. The curriculum
under a single command. Yet, this does not included Vedas, Buddhism, philosophy,
mean his power was not felt beyond the logic, urban planning, medicine, law,
limits of his direct rule. His writ ran across astronomy, etc.
entire north India. Under his command,
King of Jalandhar escorted the Chinese SOCIETY & RELIGION
traveller Hiuen Tsang to the frontiers of
India. Another time, king of Kashmir had to Caste system was prevalent among Hindus.
submit a tooth relic of Buddha to Harsha. They were divided into four castes
The Chinese source suggests that the King or varna: Brahmana,
of Kamarupa could not dare to detain a Vaishya,Kshariya and Shudra, which among
Chinese pilgrim in his capital against the them had their own subcastes. The
wishes of Harsha. untouchables, who came at the lowest in the
hierarchy, led a miserable life. The status of
ART & EDUCATION women declined as compared to the liberal
era of earlier times. Satipratha (widow
Harsha was a patron of both art and immolation) was common, and widow
education. He himself was an author and remarriage was not allowed in higher castes.
wrote three Sanskrit plays, Nagananda,
Ratnavali, Priyadarshika. One-fourth of his Harsha was a worshiper of Shiva in the
revenue went for patronizing scholars. beginning but later became a
Hiuen Tsang gives a quite vivid description Mahayana Buddhist. Yet, he was tolerant of
of the famous Nalanda University which other faiths. With a view to popularize and
was at its zenith during Harsha‘s reign. He propagate the doctrines of Mahayana
described how the regularly laid-out towers, Buddhism, Harsha arranged at Kannauj a
forests of pavilions, temples seemed to "soar great assembly which was presided over by
above the mists in the sky" so that from their Hiuen Tsang. Hiuen Tsang took a lot of
cells the monks "might witness the birth of manuscripts to China and translated more
the winds and clouds". than 600 of them from Sanskrit. Another
The pilgrim states: great ceremony was held for 75 days at

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Prayag (Allahabad). The images of Buddha, administration, art &

Sun and Siva were worshiped, and gifts of
valuable articles and clothing were architecture.
distributed in charity. Every five years
religious ceremonies were celebrated at the The founder of the Chola Empire was
ancient city of Allahabad. Here, he held the Vijayalaya, who was first feudatory of the
ceremony of Dana, or giving, which lasted Pallavas of Kanchi. He captured Tanjore in
for three months. During this, most of the 850 A.D. He established a temple of
wealth accumulated in the last five goddess Nishumbhasudini (Durga) there.
years was exhausted. Once, he even gave his
clothes and jewellery and begged his sister Aditya I succeeded Vijayalaya. Aditya
for an ordinary garment to wear. helped his overlord the Pallava king
Aparajita against the Pandyas but soon
DEATH & LEGACY defeated him and annexed the whole of the
Pallava kingdom.
Harsha‘s empire marked the beginning of
feudalism in India. Land was granted in By the end of the ninth century, the Cholas
villages, which made the local landlords had defeated the Pallavas completely and
powerful. This led to the weakening of the weakened the Pandyas capturing the Tamil
empire and gave rise to local feuds. Harsha country (Tondamandala) and including it
had to be in constant movement to keep under their domination He then became a
things in order. sovereign ruler. The Rashtrakuta king,
Krishna II gave his daughter in marriage to
Harsha died in 647 AD, and the empire with Aditya.
him. The death of Harshavardhana is not
well documented. It is said that he was He erected many Shiva temples. He was
married to Durgavati and had two sons succeeded in 907 A.D. by Parantaka I, the
named Vagyavardhana and Kalyanvardhana. first important ruler of the Cholas. Parantaka
The story goes that they were killed by a I was an ambitious ruler and engaged
minister in his court, even before the death himself in wars of conquest from the
of Harsha himself. Therefore, Harsha died beginning of his reign. He conquered
without any heir. As a result, Arjuna, one of Madurai from the Pandya ruler Rajasimha
the chief ministers took up the thrones. Later II. He assumed the title of Maduraikonda
in 648 CE, Arjuna was captured and held (captor of Madurai).
prisoner in an attack by the Tibetians.
He, however, lost to the Rashtrakuta ruler
Krishna III at the battle of Tokkolam in 949
A. D. The Cholas had to cede
Tondamandalam to the adversary. At that
The Cholas: Maritime point of time the Chola kingdom almost
activities in Sourth-east ceased to exist. It was a serious setback to
Asian counturies. Chola the rising Chola power. The revival of Chola
power began from the accession of

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Parantaka II who recovered Tondamandalam He followed the expansionist policy and

to reestablish dominance of the dynasty. made extensive conquests in Ceylon.

The climax in Chola power was achieved The Pandya and Kerala country after being
under the successor of Parantaka II, conquered was constituted as a viceroyalty
Arumolivarman, who crowned himself as under the Chola king with the title of Chola-
Rajaraja I in 985 A D the next thirty years of Pandya. Madurai was its headquarters. Pro-
his rule formed the formative periodof Chola ceeding through Kalinga, Rajendra I
imperialism. attacked Bengal and defeated the Pala ruler
Mahipala in 1022 A.D. But he annexed no
The Chola kingdom grew under him into an territory in north India.
extensive and well-knit empire, efficiently
organized and administered and possessing a To commemorate the occasion, Rajendra I
powerful standing army and navy. Rajaraja assumed the title of Gangaikondachola (the
began his conquests by attacking the Chola conqueror of Ganga). He built the
confederation between the rulers of the new capital near the mouth of the Kaveri
Pandya and Kerala kingdoms and of Ceylon. and called it Gangaikondacholapuram (the
Polonnaruva became the capital of Chola city of the Chola conqueror of the Ganga).
province in North Ceylon after the defeat of
Mahinda V, the Ceylonese king. With his naval forces, he invaded Malaya
Peninsula and Srivijaya Empire that
He also annexed the Maldives. Elsewhere, extended over Sumatra, Java and the
several parts of modern Mysore were neighbouring islands and controlled the
conquered and annexed which intensified overseas trade route to China. He sent two
their rivalry with the Chalukyas. Rajaraja diplomatic missions to China for political as
built the magnificent Shiva temple of well as commercial purposes.
Brihadeshwara or Rajaraja temple at
Thanjavur which was completed in 1010. It Rajendra was succeeded by his son
is considered a remarkable piece of Rajadhiraja I in 1044 A.D. He was also an
architecture in South Indian style. able ruler. He put down the hostile forces in
Ceylon and suppressed the rebellious
Rajaraja I also encouraged Sri Mara Pandyas and subjugated their territory. He
Vijayottungavarman, the Sailendra ruler of celebrated his victory by performing
Sri Vijaya to build a Buddhist Vihara at Virabhisheka (coronation of the victor) at
Negapatam. This vihara was called Kalyani after sacking Kalyani and assumed
‗Chudamani Vihara‘ after the father of Sri the title of Vijayarajendra. He lost his life in
Mara. Rajaraja was succeeded by his son the battle with the Chalukyan king
Rajendra I in 1014 A.D. He ruled jointly Someswara I at Koppam. His brother
with his father for a few years. He also Rajendra II succeeded him. He continued his
followed a policy of conquest and struggle against Someswara.
annexation adopted by his father and further
raised the power and prestige of the Cholas. He defeated Someswara in the battle of
Kudal Sangamam. Next came Virarajendra

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I, he too defeated the Chalukyas and erected Cholas used their immense wealth, in
a pillar of victory on the banks of building magnificent temples and structures.
Tungabhadra. Virarajendra died in 1070 It would be an understatement to call the
A.D. He was succeeded by Kulottunga I architecture of the Chola period as grand, it
(1070-1122 A.D.) the great-grandson of was more like grandiose and towering. The
Rajaraja I. He was the son of Rajendra sheer size of their temples, the towering
Narendra of Vengi and Chola princess vimanas, the sculpted walls, just every
Ammangadevi (daughter of Rajendra Chola aspect of their monuments displayed
I). Thus Kulottunga I united the two grandeur. And of course nothing to beat the
kingdoms of the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi Brihadeswara Temple at Thanjavur, that is a
and the Cholas of Thanjavur. benchmark by itself in architectural
excellence.
The most important reforms carried out by
him in the internal administration was the Even if the Cholas, had not built anything
re- surveyal of land for taxation and revenue else, just the Brihadeeswara Temple would
purposes. He was also titled Sungam tavirtta have been enough. I mean just consider the
(he who abolished tolls). The Chola facts, built fully of granite, finished within 5
authority in Ceylon was overthrown by years, that was quite fast for that period.
Vijayababu, the monarch of Ceylon during And then you have the vimana that towers to
Kulottunga‘s reign. He sent a large embassy around 216 ft, and this is just awe inspiring,
of 72 merchants to China and also on top of the tower, you have a kalasam,
maintained cordial relations with Sri Vijaya. made out of a single block of stone, that
weighs around 20 tonnes, and was lifted to
He defeated the rulers of the Pandya the top using an inclined plane that covered
kingdom and that of Kerala. Thfe Chola 6.44 km from the ground to the top. The
Empire continued for more than a century Cholas built big, their structures were meant
after him. Weak rulers succeeded him. The to tower, to inspire awe, to take away the
Cholas and the later Chalukyas clashed for breath. It was not just the grand buildings, it
the overlordship of Vengi, the Tungabhadra was also the sculpture and art that adorned
doab and the Ganga country. them, which was equally breath taking.

The Chola Empire continued in a flourishing The other magnificient structures built by
condition during the twelfth century but the Cholas, were the temple at
declined by the end of the thirteenth century. Gangaikondacholapuram, which is next only
The Pandyan king Sundara rendered the to the Brihadeesvara temple at Tanjore, in
final blow by seizing Kanchi in 1297 A.D. size, grandeur and architectural excellence.
The place of the Cholas was taken over by
the Pandyas and the Hoysalas. This marked And also the Airavateswara temple at
the end of the Chola power. Darasuram, dedicated to Lord Shiva, and so
called, because it is believed that the Shiva
Architecture and Art Linga here was worshipped by Indra's
One of the largest empires in Indian history, elephant Airavat.
that stretched till South East Asia, the

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The Chola period also witnessed a glorious Economy

phase in bronze casting, and making of Chola period had a robust and thriving
idols. The bronze idols of the Chola period, economy, that was built on 3 tiers. At the
were more expressive in nature, and devoid local level, it was agricultural settlements,
of too many intricate ornaments or designs. that formed the foundation, on top of this
The bronze idol of Nataraja, the dancing you had the Nagarams or the commercial
form of Shiva, represents the artistic towns, that primarily acted as centers of
excellence during that era. distribution for items produced externally
and by local artisans for international trade.
Administration: The top most layer was made of
"samayams" or merchant guilds, who
It was not just the fact that they built organized and looked after the thriving
magnificent temples or made exquisite idols, international maritime trade. With
the Cholas also came up with an excellent agriculture being the occupation of a large
system of governance and number of people, land revenue was a major
administration. While it was a monarchy, source of income to the treasury. The Cholas
like most other kingdoms of that era, there also built a large number of tanks, wells, and
was a serious attempt to decentralize, and a large number of channels to distribute
provide self government right at the local water. They had also built stone masonry
level. The empire was divided into dams over the Kaveri, and there was a
provinces called Mandalams, and each of thriving internal trade going on too.
those Mandalams, further into Kottams,
which again had districts, called Nadus, that Naval and Maritime Trade.
had Tehsils usually a group of villages. The Chola period would be noted for it's
While Tanjore and Gangaikonda emphasis on maritime trade and conquest,
Cholapuram were the main capitals, there they excelled in ship building. While they
also existed regional capitals at Kanchi and had a strong internal maritime system, the
Madurai, where courts were occasionally Imperial Chola Navy came into existence
held. during the reign of Raja Raja Chola I, who
strengthened it. Raja Raja Chola's use of the
Their major achievement though was the Navy to subdue the Sinhalese king Mahinda,
local self government during their times, would be one of the greatest naval victories
where villages had their own self ever. Another major achievement was the
governance. Depending on the area they conquest of the Sri Vijaya kingdom under
covered, villages again could be Nadu, Sailendra, now in Indonesia, by Raja Raja
Kottram or Kurram, and a number of Chola's successor Rajendra Chola. Having
Kurrams made up a Valanadu. The village possesion of the East and West coasts of
units had the power to administer justice at India, the Cholas had a thriving international
the local level, and for most crimes, fines trade with the Tang dynasty in China, the
were imposed, which went to the state Srivijaya empire in Malayan archipelago
treasury. Death penalty was given only for and the Abbasid Caliphate in Baghdad. The
crimes that amounted to treason. Cholas also combated sea piracy succesfully
in the Malayan archipelago, and had a close

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trade with the Song dynasty in China, that Cultural Achievements of

led to advances in ship building.
the Pallavas
While the King was the supreme
commander of the Navy, it had a highly Civilization and Culture of the Pallavas
organized structure, that was divided into
Ganams a Fleet squadron, usually The Pallava rule formed a golden epoch in
commanded by a Ganapathy. And there was the cultural history of south India. The
a hierarchical ranking structure, below the period under the Pallavas was marked by
King, that consisted considerable literary activities and cultural
of Jalathipathi(Admiral), Nayagan( Fleet revival. The Pallavas warmly patronized
Commander), Ganathipathy(rear admiral), Sanskrit language and most of the literary
Mandalathipathy(vice admiral) and records of the time were composed in that
Kalapathy( the ship captain). You also had language. Due to the cultural renaissance
separate departments for customs and a great revival of the Sanskrit language
excise(Thirvai), inspection and audits( a galaxy of scholars flourished during the
Aaivu) and an intelligence corps( Ootru). Pallava era, which accentuated the literary
The Cholas also had their own coast guard and cultural development in Southern India.
equivalent in Karaipiravu. And this would Tradition referred that Simhavishnu, the
be one of their finest achievements, building Pallava king invited the great poet Bharvi to
a world class naval structure. adorn his court. Dandin, the master of
Sanskrit prose probably lived in the court of
Literature Narasimhavarmana II. Under the royal
Often called as the Golden Age of Tamil patronage, Kanchi became the seat of
culture, it was one of the greatest literary Sanskrit language and literature. The core of
eras in history equivalent to the Elizabethean learning and education, Kanchi became the
reign in England or the Guptas in Northern point of attraction for the literary scholars.
India. Nambi Andar collected the various Dinanaga, Kalidasa, Bharvi, Varahamihir
works on Saivism and arranged them into etc were the distinguished person with
eleven books called Tirumurais, and another enormous talent in the Pallava country. Not
great work of literature was the adaptation only the Sanskrit literature, the Tamil
of the Ramayana into Tamil by Kamban, literature also received a huge impetus
called as the Ramavatharam. The period also during the Pallava period. "Maatavailasa
saw excellent works on Tamil grammar like Prahasana", written by Mahendravarmana
Yapperungalam by Jain ascetic and became very popular. The famous Tamil
Virasoliyam that attempts to find a balance classic "Tamil Kural was composed during
between Tamil and Sanskrit grammar by the period under the royal patronage.
Buddhamitra. Madurai became a great center of the Tamil
literature and culture. The Tamil grammar
"Talakappiam" and Tamil versical
compilation "Ettalogai" etc were composed
during the period. These were of immense
literary importance.

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From the 6th century AD, due to the kingdom first. The Pallavas completed the
Sanskrit revival, long poetical composition Aryanisation of Southern India. The Jains
replaced the earlier style of the short poetry. who had entered south India earlier had set
Poetry was written according to the taste of up educational centers at Madurai and
the sophisticated and aristocratic people of Kanchi. They also made a massive use of
the society. The "Silappadigaram" is one of Sanskrit, Prakrit and Tamil as the medium of
such work suited to the taste of the their preaching. But in the competition with
sophisticated, educated people of the Pallava the growing popularity of the Brahmanical
era. One of the most important literary Hinduism, Jainism lost its prominence in the
works of the time was "Ramayanam" by long run.
Kaban. This is known as the Tamil form and
version of Ramayana, where the character of Mahendravarmana lost interest in Jainism
Ravana was painted with all the noble and became a staunch follower and patron of
virtues in comparison to Rama. It is Saivism. Consequently Jainism began to
consistent with the Tamil tradition and fade out and continued in diminishing glory
Tamil ego against the Northern Ramayana in centers like Pudukottai and in the hilly
by Valmiki. The Buddhist literary work and forest regions.
"Manimekhala" and the Jaina poetical work
"Shibaga sindamani" etc. also flourished Buddhism, which had earlier penetrated in
during the period. the south, fought against invading
Brahmanism in the monasteries and public
The devotional songs composed by debates. The Buddhist scholars debated finer
Vaishnava Alavaras and the Saiva points of theology with Brahmanical
Nayanaras also shared a significant position scholars and mostly lost the ground.
in the cultural renaissance of the Pallava
period. Appar, Sambandhar, Manikkabsagar, The civilization of the Pallava period was
Sundar were some of the devotional marked by the tremendous ascendancy of
Narayana poets who composed Tamil the Hinduism, which has been branded by
Stotras or hymns. Siva was the object of the modern historians as the victory of the
worship and love. Since the Pallava kings northern Aryanism. It is said that the influx
were great musicians themselves they were of the mlechcha Sakas, Huns and the
the great patrons of music. Several Kushanas in Northern India had polluted the
celebrated musical treatise were also significance of the Vedic rites and religion.
composed under their patronage. During the In order to protect the purity of Vedic
time painting also received a great patronage religion many Brahmins migrated to
from the Pallava kings. Specimen of the Southern India and preached the Vedic
Pallava painting has been found in the Religion. Henceforth the civilization of
Pudukottai State. Deccan or southern India was mostly
influenced by the Brahmanical Hinduism.
Civilization of the Pallava period was Pallavas became the patrons of the orthodox
greatly influenced by the religious reform Vedic preachers. The performance of the
movement that swept over India during the horse sacrifices by the Pallava rulers
eighth century. The wave of the reform testified the ascendancy of the Vedic
movement was originated in the Pallava

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civilization. The success of Hinduism was aimed at conquest, though they penetrated
mostly caused by the royal patronage to this only as far as the capital of the Maili, he
religion. Sanskrit was the vehicle of the returned with wealth and prisoners of war.
Brahmanical thought. Hence both the This was an Arab incursion and part of the
Brahmanical religion and Sanskrit literature early Umayyad push onwards from the
made a great progress during the Pallava Islamic conquest of Persia into Central Asia,
period. Several centers for the Brahmanical and within the limits of the eastern borders
study sprang up. These study centers were of previous
closely connected with the temple premises
and were known as Ghetikas. The study of
the Brahmanical scriptures and literatures
was the order of the day. The Pallava kings
in order to promote the Brahmanical
civilization made land grants or agraharas to
the maintenance of the educational
institutions. In the 8th century AD, another
significant Hindu institution called Mathas
or monasteries were in vogue. They were a
combination of temple, rest houses,
educational centers, debating and Persian empires.
discoursing centers and the feeding Houses.
The university of Kanchi became the The first attack of Arabs under Ubaidullah
spearhead of Aryan-Brahmanical influences failed. He was defeated and killed, After
of the South. Kanchi was regarded as one of this, a series of expeditions were sent to
the sacred cities of the Hindus. The Pallava conquer an outpost of Sindh, which all
king though mainly were the worshippers of ended in failure. Then Hajjaj made elaborate
Vishnu and Siva, they were tolerant towards preparation for the attack on Sindh and sent
other religious creeds. Although the a powerful army under the command of his
religions like Buddhism and Jainism lost its nephew and son-in-law Muhammad bin
former significance during the Pallava era, Qasim in 711 AD with 6000 horses, 6000
yet the civilization of the Pallava period was camels, 3000 animals loaded with
marked by the multiethnicity promoted by equipments and a large infantry. Muhammad
the Pallava kings. bin Qasim proceded towards Sindh through
Makarana and first conquered Debel where
he received fresh reinforcement sent by
The Arab Invasion of Hjjaj through the sea.
India
Sind, a principality on the shores of the
The first incursion by the new Muslim Arabian Sea and the lower reaches of the
successor states of the Persian Empire Indus,was invaded from the sea by the
occurred around 664 CE during the Muslims in 711. The sea port of Daibul fell
Umayyad Caliphate, led by Mohalib towards first, thenseveral towns on the banks of the
Multan in Southern Punjab, in modern day Indus, including Arur, the capital. Finally, in
Pakistan. Mohalib's expeditions were not 713, the Arabs took Multan and the conquest

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was complete. The fall of Sind opened the of Central Asia. Mahmud‘s raids into India
way to the were only to acquire the famous wealth of
markets of Central Asia. India. This wealth would help him to
consolidate his vast rule in Central Asia. He
did not wish to establish an empire in India.
The Ghaznavids had their control on parts of
The Ghaznavid Invasion Punjab and Sind which continued till AD
1135. However his invasions exposed the
of India. weak defence of Indian kingdoms. They also
opened possibility of attacks in future by the
The Ghaznavid Dynasty was founded after Turks.
the Turk slaves reached higher posts, such as
commander-in-chiefs, in the Samanid court;
they then took over the state of Khorasan. The Delhi Sultanate :
The real founder of the Ghaznavid Dynasty Market and Military
is, in fact, Sabuktigin. It was in his time that Reforms of Allauddin
the Ghaznavid sovereignty expanded.
Mahmud Ghazni was Son of Sabuktigin, the Khilji;Utopian policies of
founder of Ghazni dynasty & Turkish slave Muhainmad-bin-Tughlaq.
commander.
Muhammad Ghori returned to Ghori,
In all Mahmud Ghazni invaded India 17 leaving his Indian territories in the charge of
times during AD 1000–[Link] his trusted general Qutub-ud –din Aibak.
Ghazni first encountered the Hindushai After Ghori‘s death in 1206, Qutub-ud-din
ruler, Jaipal in AD 1001. In the years AD Aibak proclaimed himself as the ruler of the
1004–06 Mahmud Ghazni attacked the Turkish territories in India. He took the title
rulers of Multan. Soon Punjab also passed of Sultan and made Delhi his capital. This
into the hands of the Ghaznavids. Between marked the beginning of The Delhi
AD 1014–1019, Mahmud enriched his Sultanate. The rulers of Delhi, who ruled
treasury by looting the temples of Nagarkot, from 1206-90, were Mamluk [Link]
Thanesar, Mathura and Kanauj. is an Arabic word meaning ―owned‖.
The attack against Nagarkot in AD 1008 has
been described as his first great triumph. In Qutbuddin Aibek was born in an aristocratic
AD 1025, Mahmud embarked on the most family of Turkistan. He was sold even in
ambitious Indian campaign, the attack on the childhood. A Qazi of Nishapur (Khurasan)
Somnath temple in Saurashtra. Mahmud purchased him. He managed for his religious
captured the city after grim struggle in and military education. After the death of
which more than 50,000 defenders lost their the Qazi, his sons sold him to a trader. This
lives. Mahmud left Somnath after a fortnight trader took Aibek to Ghazni and sold him to
when he came to know that the Gujarat king Muhammad Ghori.
Bhima-I had completed preparations to After winning the second battle of Tarain,
confront him. His attacks on India were an Muhammad Ghori appointed Aibek as ruler
attempt to fulfil his ambi- tion to make of his Indian empire. Aibek ruled from 1192
Ghazni the formidable power in the politics AD to 1206 AD as the representative of

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Muhammad Ghori. He became an nobles. He also confiscated their wealth on

independent sultan of India after the death of one pretext or the other.
Muhammad Ghori. He ruled for about 4 He reduced them to such a state of poverty
years (1206 – 10 AD). that most of the time they were worried
about a square meal a day. In such
The new theory of kingship as propounded circumstance they could hardly think of any
by Ala-ud-Din Khilji was similar to that of revolt.
Balban, he maintained that the Sultan was b. Ban on Drinking. Ala-ud-Din himself
the God‘s representative on earth. As such gave up drinking and emptied the jars of
none had the right to flout his authority; the wine stored for the royal use. Sale and
sultan is the focal point of all the drinking of wine was prohibited. Those who
administration. He is the Commander-in- broke this law were severely punished.
Chief, the Chief Justice and the Supreme c. Ban on inter-mixing among Nobles. The
administrator, all in one. He was intolerant Amirs and the nobles were prohibited from
to any section that would seem to challenge entertaining one another at feasts and parties
his authority. In this way he did not sit in of contracting
peace until he had brought under his matrimonial alliances, without the Sultan‘s
effective control the rich aristocracy, the permission. It was done so that they might
ulema and the commoners. He appointed a not form a group or hatch a conspiracy or
team of able ministers to assist him in sedition against the Sultan. Now the Amirs
establishing an autocratic set-up. kept themselves shut in their homes.
All the central ministers were really able and d. The Spy-System. Ala-ud-Din had spread a
efficient and they helped the Sultan whole- strong spy-system throughout his realm. It
heartedly. These provinces were governed helped him in keeping close vigilance on all
with the help of highly efficient persons. happenings in
These governors were loyal to the Sultan. his kingdom as well as on the activities of
Malik Kafur, Ulugh Khan and Ghazi Malik his Amirs and nobles and to defeat and curb
were some of the famous officers. It was the their seditious designs before they were
help of these ministers and governors that hatched. The Amirs were so scared of these
Ala-ud-Din succeeded in establishing his spies that they were afraid even of
personal autocracy. expressing their personal views openly.
e. The Revenue System. Ala-ud-Din
1. Administrative and Revenue Reforms. In reformed his revenue system in order to
the earlier period of Ala-ud-Din reign amass enough money for suppressing revolts
several of his nobles broke out in open and maintaining a strong
revolt. After deliberate thinking he army for keeping internal peace and order.
came to the conclusion that excess of money Land-revenue for all the lands was remixed.
with the Amirs, habit of drinking wine, In the Doab, the revenue rates were doubled
inter-mixing of nobles and Sultan‘s own and the people living there were forced to
negligence were the root causes of these pay it in kind. The salaries of the revenue
rebellions. Therefore he took several to curb officials were increased to make them desist
seditions and revolts: from accepting bribes. The revenue records
a. Confiscation of Wealth. Ala-ud-Din were kept up to date and the dues were
confiscated the Jagirs of the Amirs and the realized strictly.

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f. Harsh Treatment of the Hindus. Ala–ud- both the life and property of these traders.
Din policy towards the Hindus was quite Loans were also given to them.
harsh and cruel. They were to pay higher 4. Supervision of the Market. There were
rate of land revenue two officials, called the ‗Diwan-i-Risalat‘
and several other taxes which reduced them and the ‗Shahani-i-Mandi‘, to see that the
to mere paupers. traders did not over-
charge or under-weigh. Those who gave
g. Administration freed from Religious short weight were severely punished by
Domination. Ala-ud-Din was an orthodox cutting from their body a piece of flesh
Muslim and held the Ulemas in high esteem. equivalent to the deficit in weight.
But be kept politics separate 5. Merits of the System. Ala-ud-din
from religion. He never tolerated religious succeeded in maintaining a large army at the
interference in the affairs of the state, nor lowest possible cost by fixing lower rates of
did he give the Ulemas and their views any different articles. Besides
importance in matters of administration. the army it also benefitted the poor-workers
and small artisans also who could get the
Market Reforms of Ala-ud-Din Khilji articles of daily need at quite low rates.

1. Fixation of Prices. As the taxes were

already high, there was no scope to raise
them further. On the other hand, the soldiers Utopian policies of Muhainmad-bin-
felt it hard to meet their both ends with the Tughlaq.
wages and salaries that were paid to them.
Therefore, Ala-ud-Din fixed the prices of 1. Heavy taxation in the Doab
almost all the articles of daily use as low as
possible. 2. Transfer of the capital
2. Storage and supply. Besides fixing the
prices, large quantities of commodities were 3. Issue of token currency
also stored by the state. (i) All farmers and
producers within 100 4. Bribing to Mongols
miles of Delhi were ordered to sell their
produce direct to the government. (ii) 5. Plan to conquer Khurasan and Iraq
Granaries and store-houses were built with
large storage capacity to store large 6. The Quarajal expedition
quantities of corn. (iii) Grain was sold to
people at a fixed price during draught and 7. The Deccan Policy.
scarcity.
3. Control over the Means of Transport. The Mongol invasion of
Strict control was also exercised on the
means of transport. The Banjara traders India
(Pedlars) engaged in transportation of corn
were required to get their names registered During Sultan Qutb-ud-din Aibak‘s time, the
with the authorities. Protection was given to Mongols, appeared in the East of India and
emerged as a great power under the

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leadership of Genghiz Khan (1165-1227). Genghiz Khan, Jalal-ud-Din left Ghazni and
He was born in 1165 to Yesugei and entered into the areas of the Delhi Sultanate
Hoelun. He was brought up by his ablest and encamped at the west bank of river
mother Hoelun after his father was poisoned Indus. In December 1221 AD, Genghiz
to death by Tatars. In his incessant wars, he Khan followed him and crushed his army
exhibited such remarkable traits of heroism while he fled crossing the Indus waters. He
and diplomacy that led him to transform the was given refuge by the Delhi Sultan.
entire social and military structure of Genghiz Khan marched back due to hot
Mongolia. summer. But in his way back he devastated
the present day Punjab, Afghan borderland,
The Mongol troops had a strict code of Ghazni and Herat.
discipline and harsh penalties for
infringements of regulations. The Mongol In 1235 Mongol force invaded Kashmir,
hordes were divided in units of 10, 100, stationing a darughachi (administrative
1,000, and 10,000 soldiers (known as an governor) there for several years, and
arban, jagun, minghan and tümen Kashmir became a Mongolian dependency
respectively; the latter corresponds to a
modern regiment). In 1285 AD, the Mongols invaded Multan
Under this system fighters from different and killed Prince Muhammad Khan.
tribes were united in unified military
formations, whose chief strategy was to During the reign of Ala-ud-din Khilji,
―march divided, attack united,‖ and the Mongols invaded the country several times
strategies used were based on large-scale but were successfully repulsed. From these
skirmish manoeuvres that helped the invasion Alla-ud-din Khilji learnt the
Mongols defeat numerically superior but lessons of keeping himself prepared, by
fragmented forces from the Oxus to the fortifying and organizing his armed forces.
Volga.
The invasion of Mongol ruler Timur in 1398
A.D. sealed the fate of the Tughluq dynasty.
Muhammad fled and Timur captured the city
and destroyed many temples in north India.
Thousands of people were killed and Delhi
was plundered for fifteen days, Timur
returned to Samarkhand carrying away a
large amount of wealth with him.

While chasing Jalal-ud-Din Khwarzam Shah Religious Movements:

(Ruler of Khwarazmian dynasty), Genghiz Sufism
Khan stormed Afghanistan and the
territories nowadays parts of Pakistan. ‗Sufism‘ is a term used to refer to mystical
Initially, Jalal-ud-Din defeated an advance religious ideas in Islam. It had evolved into
Mongol army with the help of the Afghan a well developed movement by the 11
fighters. However after the coming of century. Sufis, stress on the importance of

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traversing the path of the Sufi pir enabling khanqah was led by shaikh, pir or murshid
one to establish a direct communion with the (teacher) who lived with his murids
divine. Sufism or mysticism emerged in the (disciples). In time the Khanqahs emerged
8 century and among the early known Sufis as important centres of learning and
were Rabia al-Adawiya, Al-Junaid and preaching. By the twelfth century the sufis
Bayazid Bastami. were organized in silsilahs (orders). The
word silsila meant chain and it represented
Sufism is deeply rooted with Islam and its signifying an unbreakable chain between the
development began in the late 7th and 8th pir and the murid. With the death of the pir
centuries. The Sufis love their creator, his tomb or shrine the dargah became a
cherish the desire of His closeness and centre for his disciples and followers.
follow His path. According to Islam, there
are two types of service. Throughout the The major silisilahs in India were the Chisti,
night, they remain in prayer, meditation and Qadri, Naqshbandi and Suharwardy Abul
contemplation of Allah and throughout the Fazl in Ain-i-Akbari gave a list of all that
day, they existed during his time, with some details
serve His creatures especially human beings. leading Sufis

The Chishti order was founded in a village

called Khwaja Chishti (near Herat). In India,
the Chishti silsilah was founded by Khwaja
Muinuddin Chishti (born c. 1142) who came
to India around 1192. He made Ajmer the
main centre for his teaching. He believed
that serving mankind was the best form of
devotion and therefore he worked amongst
the downtrodden.

Suharwardi Silsila entered India at the same

time as the Chishtis and its activities were
confined to the Punjab and [Link] was
established in India by Bahauddin Zakanya.
The Most well-known saints were Shaikh
shihabuddin Suharwadi and Hamidud-din
The following fundamental Principles of Nagori.
Sufism are found in Islam:-
i. Kashf is a source of knowledge. Naqshbandi Silsilah was established in India
ii. God is unique, eternal and all-pervading. by Khwaja Bahauddin Naqshbandi. From
iii. The world is transitory. the beginning the mystics of this Order
iv. God is near to His creatures. stressed on the observance of the shariat and
denounced all innovations or biddat. Sheikh
The khanqah (the hospice) was the center of Baqi Billah the successor to Khawaja
activities of the various sufis [Link] Bahauddin Naqshbandi settled near Delhi,

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 Module 1 (History)

and his successor Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi The Bhakti movement in India was
attempted to purge Islam from all liberal and characterized by:-
what he believed were ‗un-Islamic‘
practices. He opposed the listening of sama
(religious music) and the practice of
pilgrimage to the tombs of saints.

Religious Movements:
The Bhakti movement
The Bhakti movement in Indian history
represents a movement that popularized
devotional surrender to a personally
conceived supreme God. Its origins are
traced to the Brahamanical and Buddhist
traditions of ancient India. It was in south
India that it grew from a religious tradition
into a popular movement based on religious
equality and broad based social
participation. The movement led by popular (i) the rejection of the then existing ritual
saints reached its climax in the 10 century hierarchy and Brahmanical superiority'
A.D.
(ii) The use of vernacular or local language
The development of Bhakti movement took in preference to Sanskrit (the language of
place in Tamil Nadu between the seventh the elite)
andtwelfth centuries. It was reflected in the
emotional poems of the Nayanars (devotees (iii) the emergence of the low-caste non-
of Shiva) and Alvars (devotees of Vishnu). literate' persons like Rameja Dasar, Pillai
Uranga, Villi Dasar and Kanak Dasar in the
south and Kabir, Raidas, and Dadu in the
north as great spiritual leaders. There was
large scale participation of peasantry,
artisans, and other lower classes as well as
of ritually inferior but economically
powerful groups like merchants and
craftsmen in these devotional movements.

The term bhakti is defined as ―devotion‖ or

passionate love for the Divine. Moksha or
liberation from rebirth was not in the
following of rules, regulations or societal
ordering, it was through simple devotion to
the Divine. Within the movement at large,

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useful distinctions have been made by  Guru Nanak : Nanaka was born in
contemporary scholars between those poet 1469 in the village to Talwandi.
saints who composed verses extolling God Presently the place is known as
with attributes or form, namely, ―saguna‖ Nankana in the Sheikhupura district
bhaktas, and, those extolling God without of West Punjab. His parents
and beyond all attributes or form, ―nirguna.‖ belonged to Khatri caste. His father
Kalu was the Patwari of the village.
Some of the famous Bhakti Saints are:- Nanaka was educated in the village
school.
 Ramanuja: Born in A.D. 1166 in a  Vallabhacharya : Vallabhacharya
small town near Chenni (Madras), was a Tailang Brahmin. He preached
Ramanuja was a worshipper of the worship of Vishnu in the form of
Vishnu and preached Vaishnavism. Krishna. He was born in 1479 in the
He had a great following in the Telugu country. He visited Mathura,
South. Ramananda: The greatest Vrindavan and many other sacred
preacher of this cult in north India places and finally settled at Varanasi.
was Ramananda. He discarded all The feeling of Bhakti or devotion
caste distinctions and his disciples can be traced back to the Rig Veda.
belonged to all castes. It is the very first hymn of the Rig
 Kabir: He was perhaps the most Veda, which gives expression to a
popular reformer of his times. He feeling of intimacy with the highest
was a disciple of Ramananda. Kabir god. In the Katha Upanisad it is said
was against idol worship or any sort that the divine help, which is the
of rituals. reward to Bhakti, is necessary before
 Namdeva: He was a Maratha saint, one can be saved.
born into a low family. He too
believed in the oneness of God. He Indo Islamic Architecture
travelled far and wide and had
discussions with the Sufis. A large The Ghurid occupation of India at the close
number of Muslims also became his of the 12 century A.D has shown the seeds
followers. of Indo-Islamic architecture in the Indian
 Chaitanya Mahaprabhu: He was a Subcontinent . The Muslims having
religious teacher from Bengal and an inherited a wealth of varied designs from
ardent devotee of Lord Sassanian and Byzantine empires and being
Krishna. HE travelled widely and naturally endowed with good taste for
popularized hymns sung in praise of buildings, never failed to adapt to their own
Krishna. requirements the indigenous architecture of
 Mirabai: Mirabai was a Rajput almost every foreign country that they
princess and a passionate devotee of conquered.
Krishna. She preached in Brijbhasha,
the common language of the people. The most important factors common to both
Her song and verses are very popular forms of architecture, especially in respect
even today. of mosques and temples, were that to both

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styles, ornamental decoration was very vital and the finest examples of this type of work
and that the open court in many cases was are available in the Red Fort in Delhi and
surrounded by colonnades. But the contrast the Taj Mahal at Agra. Besides, the
was equally striking: the prayer chamber of structures within the Fatehpur Sikri
the mosque was spacious, whereas the complex, the forts at Agra and Lahore and
shrine of the temple was comparatively the Shahi mosques in Delhi and Lahore are
small. an important part of our heritage. During
this period mosques, tombs of kings and
The distinctive features of Indo-Islamic dargahs came to
architecture were :- dominate the landscape.

(a) dome; The first distinct example of proper Mughal

architecture inspired by Persian architecture,
(b) lofty towers or minarets; is the tomb of Humayun, in Delhi, built by
his widow, Begha Begum. This tomb is
(c) arch; and important for a proper study of the
development of later Mughal architecture
(d) the vault and has provided the prototype, followed by
architects who designed the Mausoleum of
The tomb architecture is also another feature Jahangir at Shahdara, Lahore, as well as the
of the Islamic architecture as the practice of celebrated Taj Mahal, at Agra.
the burial of the dead is adopted. The
general pattern of the tomb architecture is Development of Hindi
consisted of a domed chamber (hujra), a
cenotaph in its centre with a mihrab on the and Urdu Language
western wall and the real grave in the
underground chamber. Hindi and Urdu are two Hindustani
Languages; spoken mostly in the northern
The pietra dura or coloured stone inlay work and Central India and in Pakistan.
on marble became very popular in the days
of Shah Jahan Hindi and Urdu are two different languages
but these languages have many common
things. Both Hindi and Urdu are developed
in a similar phase and adopted many
changes.

We will discuss about the development of

both the languages one by one.

Development of Hindi:

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 Module 1 (History)

Hindi in Khariboli form has been accepted The vocabulary is derived mostly from the
as official language of India. It is written in Sanskrit Language.
Devnagari script. It is listed in the 22
scheduled languages of India in our
Constitution.

Hindi is one of the youngest languages of

India which come in literary only before 2-3
centuries back.

Hindi is 4th the most speaking languages of

the world after Mandarin, Spanish and
English.

Now we will dig deep to find the foundation

of Hindi language. Hindi is an Indo-Aryan
Language which find its root in various
Prakrit languages in India. There were
various Prakrit was being spoken in various
regions of like Magadhi, Ardha Magadhi, We can divide the development of Hindi
Himalayan Prakrit, Shaurseni Prakrit etc. language in 3 stages for our understanding:

This was around 500-600 century than these 1. Early Stages

Prakrit were developed in their regions 2. Middle Stage
under the patron of their rulers. Although
Sanskrit was used as official communication  Modern Stage
and for literary works, yet regional
languages were the languages of the masses.

1. Early Stage: This was the making

time of Hindi when it was finding its
root in regional Prakrit. The time can
be considered form 5th century to
Hindi language was originally called Hindvi. 1300 AD. In this time
It started taking shape around 10th century. It
was mostly spoken in the present day Delhi.
It was highly influenced by the Shaurseni
Aprabhansha. 1. Middle Stage: We can mark this
time from 14th century to 1800
Century. In this stage various saints
and other poet wrote which was the
basis of Modern day Hindi. Kabir,
Ramananda, Tulsidas, Gurunanak,

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 Module 1 (History)

Meerabai , Amir Khusrau had much Urdu was accepted as national language of
impact on this. Pakistan.

Urdu is developed from the medieval

Apabhramsa of Shaurseni.

Shaurseni is an Indo-Aryan language that is

 Modern Stage: This was the time also the ancestor of other modern languages,
when Hindi language developed including the Punjabi and Hindi dialects.
fully. A lot of development happened
during this time from grammar to Around 99% of Urdu verbs have their roots
modern novel writing. A lot of in Sanskrit and Prakrit.
writers and scholars have done a lot
for the development of Hindi. Urdu developed under the influence of
Bharatendu Harishchandra also the Persian and Arabic languages, both of
known as father of Modern Hindi which have contributed a significant amount
Literature; did a lot for the of vocabulary to formal speech.
development of Hindi and to shape it
in standardized form.

The development of Urdu can be

summarized in three stages:

1. Early Stage
2. Middle Stage

Development of Urdu:  Modern Stage

The early history of Hindi and Urdu is

almost same. The invasion of foreigner from
western part of India from Middle East 1. Early Stage: The early stage of
brought many changes in the Indian people. Hindi and Urdu is almost same
The changes was not only in culture, where it was finding its source in
lifestyle but was in the language as well. regional Prakrit languages. Invaders
The invaders patronized Persian and Arabic of Muslim rulers from West also
form of languages; which influenced the brought development to initial
local languages and vice-versa. stages. This period can be marked
from 500-1300 AD.
Urdu is also a Hindustani language which
found its origin in various other languages.
Urdu is mostly spoken in the northern parts
of India and is official language of some 1. Middle Stage: With the upcoming
states of India. After the partition of India, of Muslims rulers from west in India

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 Module 1 (History)

Persian language become prominent. Humayun (1530 A.D.- 1555 A.D.)

Persian language itself has its roots
in Arabic language. Urdu was Humayun means ‗the most fortunate‘. In
influenced by the Perso-Arabic 1537 A.D., he conquered Gujarat. His arch
language duo and marked its enemy was sher shah. Humayun defeated
tremendous development. Period: sher shah suri in the battle of Chausa in
1400AD -1800 AD 1540 A.D. and for the second time in the
battle of bilgram (1540 A.D.). The mughals
lost delhi in the battle of bilgram for the first
time. Humayun took shelter in the court of
Rana Prasad of Amarkot. In 1545 A.D.,
humayun defeated sikandar shah of the suri
 Modern stage: British had played dynasty in the battle of sarhind and got back
important role in developing Modern delhi. He fell from his personal library at
day Urdu language. Persian was the dinpanah and died.
official language of many ruler‘s
court, British were not happy with
this and they tried developing Urdu
to counter Persian language. Modern Akbar (1556 A.D.- 1605 A.D.)
writers also played an important role
in development of Urdu language. Second battle of Panipat( October 1556
A.D.) was fought between Akbar and Hemu.
Mughal Empire Hemu took the title of ‗Raja Vikramajeet‘.
Akbar was declared the emperor of
Mughal Empire (1526 A.D.-1857 A.D.) Hindustan at Kalanoor in sind without being
coronated by his tutor Bairam Khan. The
Babur- mughals got back delhi in the second battle
of Panipat by killing [Link] 1562 A.D.,
His actual name was Zahiruddin the government was called ‗Purdah
Mohammed, son of Omar Sheikh Mirza, the government‘ as mahamanagabagum, the
king of Ferghana in Afghanistan. His first wife of Humayun ,hamidabanu begum
ambition was to conquer Samarkand, the and bairam khan managed the
seat of Timur. In 1527 A.D., Babur defeated administration.
ranasanga in the battle of Kanwa. In the
battle of Chanderi (1528 A.D.), Babur Akbar,s conquests-
defeated Mediniroy. In the battle of Gogra in
1529 A.D., Babur defeated Mohd Lodi, In 1562 A.D., Rani durgavati of godwana
brother of Ibrahim Lodi and conquered was defeated.
Bengal. Babur wrote his memories in
Turkish language. It was called Tuzak-i- In 1564 A.D., Bazbahadurof malwa was
Babari or babarnamah. defeated.

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 Module 1 (History)

In 1570 A.D., Dawood khan of Bengal was But it would be a mistake to suppose that
killed. Akbar‘s Rajput policy was wholly
successful. It was not. He was unable to
In 1572 A.D., Muzaffar shah of Gujarat was break the power and pride of Mewar. It was
defeated. not till Jahangir‘s time that Mewar
concluded terms with the Mughals. Even
In 1585 A.D, Akbar conquered Kashmir then the Mughal Emperor had to concede to
defeated Md. Padshah. the ruler of Mewar, a status of special
honour and privilege.
In 1600 A.D., Rani chandbibi of
Amhmednagar was defeated btAbulFazl Akbar,s Religious policy-
who sent by Akbar. this was the last
conquest of Akbar. In 1562 A.D., Akbar banned force
conversion.
Akbar,s Rajput policy-
In 1563 A.D. the pilgrim tax on Hindus was
Akbar was a great pragmatist. He was the abolished.
first Muslim ruler to realize that without the
help of the Rajput‘s, no permanent empire In 1564 A.D. JIzia tax was abolished.
could be set up in India. In January, 1562
when the Akbar was going to Ajmer to visit In 1575 A.D. Akbar constructed
the holy shrine of Saint Chishti, he accepted Ibadatkhana at FatehpurSikri for religious
the submission of Raja Bharmal of Amber discourses and discussions to be conducted
and welcomed a matrimonial alliance with every Thursday.
that Kachhwaha ruling family and on his
return from Ajmer Akbar married with his Akbar invited father monsuratte and father
daughter on 6th February, 1562. Aquinois to speak on Christianity, Pt.
Puroshottam on Hinduism, jainasenasuri on
Bharmal with his son Bhagwant Das and Jainism and Raza on parsi religion.
grandson Man Singh accompanied the
Emperor to Aagra where he was given a In 1579 A.D., he issued his famous decree
command of 5,000 and his son and grandson of infallibility called mahazir or
were granted commissions in the imperial Mahzarnama.
army.
It was drafted by sheikh Mubarak. With he
The Rajput policy of Akbar was wise and decree, Akbar became Mir-i-Adil (chief
statesman like. He succeeded in bringing the interpretor of konan). In 1582 A.D. akbar
majority of the Rajput kingdoms under his founded a new faith called Din-iillahi. It was
authority. What is more important, Akbar also called tauhid-i-illahi meaning universal
was able to enlist the support of the Rajputs faith. Its main theme sul-i-khul interpreted
in fighting his wars. as ‗peace and harmony‘ was introduced for
the first time by abdullatif, the teacher of

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 Module 1 (History)

akbar. din-i-illahi was openly criticized by Mir-i-Askan was in charge of the military
raja bhagwan das. offences.

Revenue Administration:

Akbar initially followed Sher Shah, revenue Jahangir (1605 A.D.- 1628 A.D.)
systems, particularly the Zabt system. Raja
Todal Mal was made the Revenue Minister His pet name was Sheikh baba. He hung the
of Akbar and was known as Diwan-i-Ashraf. ‗bell of justice‘ in Agra Fort. He executed
Todar Mal introduced ‗Bandobast‘, a his son khusrau and also the fifth guru
revenue assessment system classified into ArjunDev for supporting him. Mehr-un-nisa
four categories: begum was given the tilte of ‗Noorjahan‘and
she became popular as padshah begum. She
Polaj (best tract), Parauti (second best), founded her own group called junta
Checher (3rd grade) and Banjar (least consisting of herself, her father MirzaGhiaz
fertile). On the basis of the average produce Beg (itamad-ud-daula)and her brother Asaf
for the last 10 years, the category of land khan.
was decided and accordingly tax was levied.
Dastur-ul-Amal was the price list for every Khurram (shahjahan) made Rana Amar
area‘s agricultural commodities. Akbar singh of Mewar accept Mughal suzerainty
appointed supervisors for revenue collection in1615 A.D.
called karoris at paraganah level.
In 1616 A.D. Khurram conquered
Ahmadnagar and was given the title
‗Shahjahan‘.
Military Administration (Mansabdari
System) In 1622 A.D.,Persians occupied Kandahar
and the Mughals lost Kandahar forever.
The Mansabdari system was the unique Jahangir died at Lahore and was buried at
administration system under the Mughals. Shahdra near Lahore.
Though introduced by Babur, it was
perfected by Akbar. themansabdars were the Shahjahan (1628 A.D – 1658 A.D)
civil servants selected on merit. They
discharged civil, military, and judicial  In 1629 A.D., Gujrat and Deccan
functions on behalf of the state/Emperor and famine resulted in the loss of man
were given land called Jagirs. The highest and material.
rank in Mansabdari of above 5000 was  In 1630 A.D., Portuguese in Hoogly
conferred by Akbar on raja man revolted and were driven away from
singhndAzizuddinKuka (11,000 sawars). Hoogly by Kasim Khan, Governor of
Bengal.
Mir-i-Atish was in charge of artillery.  In 1631 A.D., Mumtaz died.

Mir-i-Bahari was in charge of navy.

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Civil War- It was fought between  He abolished both, vocal and

DaraShikoh, the eldest son of Shahjahan and instrument music. He also restrained
Aurangzeb, the third son. Begum jahanAra court astrologer and historians;
supported dara and banned celebration of Diwali and
RoshanArasupported Aurangzeb. The Persian Navaroz festival.
secular dara followed Qadri Sufi Order and
translated Upanishads into Persian whereas Mughal Architecture
Aurangzeb followed NaqshBandi order.
Akbar
Aurangzeb and his alliance with the fourth
son Murad defeated the imperial armies The advent of the Mughals brought a new
commanded by dara and raja Jaswantsingh era in architecture. The synthesis of style
in the battle of varmat and samugarh in 1658 which began earlier reached its zenith during
A.D. shahjahan was imprisoned on the this time. The architecture of Mughal style
charges of misusing public money. He died started during Akbar‘s rule. The first
in 1665 A.D. building of this rule was Humayun‘s Tomb
at Delhi. In this magnificent building red
Aurangzeb defeated dara for the third time stone was used. It has a main gateway and
in the battle of deorai , performed coronation the tomb is placed in the midst of a garden.
twice and came to power with the title Many consider it a precursor of the
‗Alamgir‘ meaning ‗king of the world‘. TajMahal. Akbar built forts at Agra and
FatehpurSikri. The BulundDarwaza reflects
the grandeur of the mighty Mughal empire.
This building was made following Akbar‘s
Aurangzeb (1658 A.D. -1707 A.D.) victory over Gujarat. The Arch of the
BulandDarwaja is about 41 m high and is
After coming to the power, Aurangzeb perhaps the most imposing gateway in the
brought about many changes. world. The tomb of SalimChishti, Palace of
JodhaBai, IbadatKhana, Birbal‘s House and
 He abolished the ‗kalimas‘ other buildings at FatehpurSikri reflect a
(inscribing quranic verses on coins). synthesis of Persian and Indian elements.
 Mohitisib, the royal censor officer
was entrusted with the responsibility Jahangir
of enforcing Koran.
 The customs duties were fixed at During the reign of Jehangir, Akbar‘s
2.5% for Muslims and 5% for Mausoleum was constructed at Sikandra
Hindus. near Agra. He built the beautiful tomb of
 In 1669 [Link] order for the Itimad-ud-daula which was built entirely of
destruction of temples.h The marble.
KashiVishwanath temple and
Keshavrayatwmple in Mathura were Shahjahan
the prominent ones to be destroyed.
 In 1679 [Link] was reimposed.

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 Module 1 (History)

Shahjahan was the greatest builder amongst resulted from the synthesis of Persian and
the Mughals. He used marble extensively. Indian style and the independent style of
Decorative design in inlay work, (called Mughal painting was developed. Between
pietraduro) beautiful arches and minarets 1562 and 1577 a series of nearly 1400 cloth
were the features of his buildings. The Red paintings were produced representing the
Fort and Jama Masjid of Delhi and above all new style and were placed in the imperial
the TajMahal are some of the buildings built studio. Akbar also encouraged the art of
by Shahjahan. The TajMahal, the tomb of making portraits.
Shahjahan‘s wife, is built in marble and
reflects all the architectural features that The art of painting reached its climax during
were developed during the Mughal period. It the period of Jahangir who himself was a
has a central dome, four elegant minarats, great painter and connoisseur of art. Artists
gateway, inlay work and gardens began to use vibrant colours such as peacock
surrounding the main building. blue and red and were able to give three
dimensional effects to paintings. Mansur,
The Mughal style of architecture had a Bishan Das and Manohar were the most
profound influence on the buildings of the gifted painters of Jahangir‘s time. Mansur
later period. The buildings showed a strong had made an outstanding portrait of the artist
influence of the ancient Indian style and had AbulHasan and specialised in paintings of
courtyards and pillars. For the first time in birds and animals.
the architecture of this style living beings-
elephants, lions, peacocks and other birds Though Shah Jahan was more interested in
were sculptured in the brackets. architectural splendours, his eldest son
DaraShikoh patronised painting like his
Mughal Paintings gradfather. He preferred depicting natural
elements like plants and animals in his
The art of textual illustration got a new look painting. However withdrawal of royal
under the Mughals. Akbar and his patronage to painting under Aurangzeb led
successors brought revolutionary changes to to the dispersal of artists to different places
painting and sensual illustrations. From this in the country.
period book illumination or individual
miniatures replaced wall painting as the Economic Condition during Mughal
most vital form of art. Emperor Akbar Period
patronised artists from Kashmir and Gujarat;
Humayun brought two Persian painters to The village was the unit around which
his court. For the first time painters‘ names peasant society revolved. It was also the real
were recorded in inscriptions. Some great unit of assessment of the state‘s revenue
painters of this period were Abd-us- demand, which was distributed among
SamadDasawanth and Basawan. villagers by the headman (muqaddam or
kalantar ) and the village accountant (
Beautiful illustrations are found on the pages patwar ?). It thus had a financial pool, from
of Baburnama and Akbarnama. Within a which not only tax payments but also minor
few years an integrated and dynamic style common expenses (kharch-i dih) were met.

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 Module 1 (History)

This seems to have formed the basic factor on by sarraf s). Some of them, at the ports,
behind the celebrated, but often elusive, also owned and operated ships.
Indian village community.

Commerce seems to have penetrated the

village economy to a great extent, since
peasants needed to sell their crops in order
to pay their taxes. There was little left them Rise of Maratha Empire
with which to buy any goods on the market.
Even so, commerce must have intensified Rise of Maratha Empire
the already existing differences due to the
unequal possession of agricultural and Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj (Shivaji Shahaji
pastoral goods (seed, ploughs and cattle). Bhosale) was the founder of strong Maratha
The peasants were usually divided among Empire in the west part of India in 17th
castes. Even the administration recognized Century.
caste hierarchy by varying the revenue rates
according to caste, as documents from Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj (Shivaji Shahaji
Rajasthan especially show. Bhosale) was born in the fort of Shivneri,
near from city Junner (Pune District), in the
By and large, artisans were in the same year 1630 (19th February‘ 1630). His
position as peasants: they were mother Jijabai Bhosale named him Shivaji in
technically‘free‘, but hemmed around by the honor of goddess Shivai Devi.
many constraints. Though some artisans Chhatrapati Shivaji was devotAed to his
were bound to render customary services as mother Jijabai Bhosale, who was extreme
village servants, most could sell their wares religious. This kind of environment had put
in the market. The need for advances, deep impact on Shivaji maharaj.
however, often forced them to deal only
with particular merchants, brokers or other Expansion of Empire and Battles of
middlemen. A small number worked in the Shivaji
workshops (karkhana s) of nobles and
merchants.  In the 1659 Adilshah sent Afzalkhan
with the army of 75000 soldiers to
Merchants formed a numerous and fairly destroy Shivaji with his empire.
well-protected class in the Mughal empire. Chhatrapati Shivaji killed Afzal
This class was also quite heterogeneous in Khan with full diplomatically. He
composition. There were, on the one hand, signaled his troops to start the great
the large bands of the banjara s (transporters assault on the Adilshahi Sultanate.
of goods in bulk), who travelled with pack  Shivaji defeated Kaltalf Khan, a
oxen over enormous distances; on the other, sardar of Shahista Khan in the Battle
there were specialist bankers (sarraf s), of Umberkhind with few soldiers
brokers (dallal s) and insurers (the business (Mavale).
of b?ma, or insurance, being usually carried  Aurangjeb sent his maternal uncle
Shahista Khan with powerful army

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 Module 1 (History)

over 1,50,000 on request of  Peshwa- Prime Minister

Badibegum Sahiba, Adishahi  Amatya- Finance Department
sultanate. In the April  Sachiv- Home Secretary
1663Chhatrapati Shivaji personally  Sumant- Foreign Secretary
made surprise attack on Shahista  Nyayadheesh- Judicial Magistarate
Khan in the LalMahal Pune.  Senapati- Commander In chief
 Chhatrapati Shivaji sacked surat ,the  Panditrao- relifious matters
wealthy city of mughal empire in  Mantri- Day to day activities
1664. Surat was the financial capital
of mughal& trading centre. Revenue Administration
 Chhatrapati Shivaji agreed to give 23
forts and Rs. 4,00,000/- hone, to let T he assessment of revenue was made after a
his son Sambhaji become Mughal careful survey and classification of the lands
Sardar and ready to meet with according to their quality and yield. The
Aurangjeb in the treaty of Purander share of the state was fixed at two-fifths of
between Chhatrapati Shivaji and the gross produce. The cultivator was given
Mirza Raje Jaisingh on behalf of the option of paying either in cash or kind.
Mughal.
 Chhatrapati Shivaji gained lot of Besides the land revenue, Shivaji had other
province till jinji in Karnataka after sources of income, of which the most
coronation in the period of 1677- important were the chauth and
1678. sardeshmukhi. The chauth amounted to one-
 Aurangjeb invited Chhatrapati fourth of the standard revenue assessment of
Shivaji to Agra on occasion of his the place, while the sardeshmukhi was an
50th birth anniversary. However, in additional levy of 10 per cent demanded
the court on 1666 Aurangjeb made in from areas outside his kingdom because he
stand behind military commanders of claimed to be the hereditary sardeshmukh
his [Link] got angry and he (chief headman) of the entire Maratha
refused gift which offered by country. These taxes were levied on those
Aurangjeb and stormed out of the living outside Maratha kingdom as a
court. He was house arrested by safeguard (a kind of protection money)
Aurangjeb .Chhatrapati Shivaji made against Shivaji's forces plundering or raiding
supreme plan and succeed to escape their territory.
from Agra.
Marathas Consolidation and Northward
Ashtpradhans of Shivaji Expansion

It was dministrative and advisory council set Age of Peshwas

up by the Indian Shivaji which contributed
to his successful military attacks on the Balaji Vishwanath
Muslim Mughal Empire and to the good
government of the territory over which he With Balaji Vishwanath in charge of the
established his rule. Maratha military and Kanhoji in charge of

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 Module 1 (History)

the Marathas Navy. This agreement set the Abdali. Raghunath rao not only defeated
course for Balaji Viswanatha's rise as a Abdali but chased him up to the Khyber pass
Peshwa during his subsequent visit to Delhi till Attock in Paktoonistan. .
with an army of 12,000 Marathas. During This success of Raghunath Rao aroused the
this visit to Delhi, on an invitation from the jealousy of Balaji Baji Rao's wife
Syed brothers in their struggle with the Gopikabai, who started conspiring against
Mughal Emperor Farrukhsiyyar, the Raghunath Rao to undermine his influence.
Maratha forces led by Balaji Viswanath This led to corresponding jealousy from
clashed with the forces of Mughal Emperor Anandibai who was Ragunath Rao's wife.
and defeated them. This was the first The unfortunate fallout of this court intrigue
Maratha victory over the Mughals in Delhi. ws to end in the disastrous 3rd battle of
This event marks the asendency of the Panipat in 1761.
Marathas in Delhi an asendency that was to
last for almost a century till they were The 3rd Battle of Panipat
supplanted by the British in 1803. When Abdali launched his second invasion
in 1759 the Marathas who after their
The Peshwas - Baji Rao, Balaji Baji Rao, successes in 1756 had been hibernating in
Madha Rao Maharashtra and Central India again woke
After Shahu, the de facto executive power up and in alliance with the Jat King Suraj
passed into the hands of the hereditary Mal of Bharatpur formed an alliance. This
Prime Ministers the Peshwas. Balaji alliance led by Shrimant Sadshiv Rao Bhau
Viawanath Bhatt was succeeded by his son and Shrimant Vishwas Rao (the Peshwa
Baji Rao the first. Baji Rao was a very able Shrimant Balaji Baji Rao's son) won
and ambitious soldier and he was the one spectacular victories and captured Delhi and
who consolidated Maratha power in North Kunjapura (where the Afghan treasury and
India. armoury was located). Here the alliance
developed cracks due to the Maratha
Baji Rao died at a relativey young age of 40 insistence on not allowing the Jats to loot
in the year 1740. His was succeeded by his Delhi. This ultimately split the alliance and
son Balaji Baji Rao. Balaji Baji Rao played Suraj Mal withdrew from the alliance. The
a tragic role in Maratha history and the Marathas consequently marched upto
fissiparous tendencies he let loose ultimately Panipat, but instead of continuing their
let to the downfall of the Maratha empire. attacks to completely defeat the partly
His first mistake was to go back on the defeated Abdali and Najib Khan, they stayed
agreement between his grandfather Balaji put at Panipat, blocking the way of the
Viswanath Bhatt and Kanhoji Angre Afghans back to Afghanistan. Seeing their
according to which the Peshwa was to have way back to their homeland blocked, the
no direct control over the Maratha Navy. He Afghans now became restless. They in turn,
attacked the his own navy and weakened decided to block the way of the Marathas
one arm of the Maratha might. back into the Deccan.
During his rule, North India was invaded by This stand-off continued for one whole year
Ahmed Shah Abdali first in 1756. Balaji from the 14th of January 1760 up to the 14th
Baji Rao then sent his brother Raghunath of January 1761. This led to the fall in the
Rao along with Malharrao Holkar to defeat

Page 63
 Module 1 (History)

morale of the stranded Marathas and Beginning of European

ultimatley led to their defeat at Panipat. settlements:Formation and growth of East
India Company;
The Afghans with Najib Khan meanwhile
also recaptured Delhi and Kunjpura. On the Luxury goods produced in east asian
decisive day of 14th January 1761 (Makar countries such as pepper, spices such as
Sankranti), the Marathas decided to break- cloves, cinnamon and nutmeg, silks, cottons,
through the Afghan blockade and re-enter tea and coffee were in great demand in
Deccan. The disastrous battle saw about one [Link] luxury goods from the East
hundred thousand Maratha troops being Indies came to Europe in small quantities
slaughtered in a matter of eight hours. But via complex trade routes. Several of the
the Afghans too suffered heavy losses and European nations were anxious to find direct
decided enough was enough and went back routes to this treasure house of expensive
to Afghanistan never to return to India. trade goods.
The defeat of the Marathas and the
withdrawal of the Afghans created a power The East India Company was established in
vacuum in North India in the period 1761- 1600 to challenge the Dutch-Portuguese
1790. It was this vacuum that was filled up monopoly of the spice trade. Queen
by the rising British power. But more of this Elizabeth granted the company monopoly
later. rights to bring goods from India. With the
approval of local Indian rulers, the East
India Company (EIC) established trading
posts in Bengal and Madras, trading in
Beginning of European cottons, silks, indigo, saltpetre, tea and
settlements:Formation spices. Spices were valuable for use as a
preservative (for otherwise inedible meat)
and growth of East India and in medicines. Nutmeg was much sought
Company; Consolidation after for the treatment of rheumatism and
of British power in India : cloves for toothache.

Battles of Plassey and After the downfall of Vijaynagra kingdom,

Buxar; Control over southern India provided ample opportunities
Mysore; Subsidiary for the growth of East India Company in the
southern India.
Alliance; Doctrine of
Lapse; Doctrine of In 1634, the Emperor Shah Jahan's firman
Escheat granted the Company permission to
establish factories
in Bengal with a fort at Piplee. In 1640, the
Company acquired on very favorable terms,
the concession of Madras which became the
first independent position of the English in
India. Permission was also obtained to build

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 Module 1 (History)

a fort the Fort of [Link] and this was the Bengal. He defeated the Nawab at Plassey in
origin of the Madras Presidency. -the Fort of 1757 and captured Calcutta.
[Link] and this was the origin of the
Madras Presidency. Mir Jafar, The commander-in-chief of the
Nawab was made the Nawab by Clive for
his support to the English.
Mir Jafar responded by paying a sum of
Consolidation of British power in India : [Link] Crore and Seventy Seven lakhs
Battles of Plassey and Buxar; (17,700,000) to the Company and large
sums to the Company officers as bribe. But
According to this Imperial farman,the Mir Jafar could not support the ever
Company had to pay Rs. 3000 a year and in increasing demands of the English who
return could carry on trade duty- free in werealso suspicious about his collaboration
Bengal. The Company‘s servants extended with the Dutch Trading Company. Mir
this privilege to their own coastal Jafar,who was made nawab after the battle
trade,inter- Asian trade and finally the of Plassey, was deposed in 1760. Mir Qasim
inland [Link] asked the was placed on the throne by the British in
Company to stop meddling in the political the hope that he would be able to meet their
affairs of his dominion, stop fortification, financial demands.
and pay the revenues. After negotiations
failed, theNawab marched with 30,000 In June 1763 under Major Adams British
soldiers to the English factory at army defeated Mir Qasim the Nawab of
Kassimbazar, captured the Company Bengal. Mir Qasim fled to Patna and took
officials, locked the warehouse, disarmed all help from Emperor Shah Alam II and
Englishmen, and blockaded English ships. Shujaud-Daula. On October 22-23, 1764, the
decisive Battle of Buxar was fought. The
The British retaliation started with hatching belligerents were the East India Company on
a conspiracy against the nawab in alliance one side and combined forces of Mir Kasim,
with his officers like Rai Durlabh, Ami Shah Aalam II and Shuja-ud-Daula. The
Chand, Mir Jafar and Jagat Seth. combined forces had 40000 soldiers and the
British Forces had 18000 forces.
The battle took place at Palashi on the banks
of the Bhagirathi River. The belligerents Nawab of Awadh becoming a grateful
were the Nawab Siraj-ud-daulah, the last subordinate. Mughal emperor became a
independent Nawab of Bengal, and the pensioner of Company. Nawabs of Bengal
British East India Company. Siraj-ud-daulah and Awadh did not challenge the superior
had become the Nawab of Bengal the year position of the Company again.
before, and he ordered the English to stop
the extension of their fortification. Robert By the Treaty of Allahabad (1765), Nawab
Clive bribed Mir Jafar, the commander in of Awadh Shuja-ud-Daula was confirmed in
chief of the Nawab's army, and also his
promised him to make him Nawab of possessions on the following conditions:

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 Surrendering Allahabad and Kora to finally fell to the Company forces in 1799,
Mughal emperor Shah Alam with the slaying of Tipu Sultan in 1799.
 Rs 5o lakhs were paid to Company as
war indemnity Subsidiary Alliance;
 Balwant Singh, zamindar of Benaras was
confirmed in full possession of his The Subsidiary Alliances system was
estate. introduced by Lord Wellesley in and after
1798. The British, under the subsidiary
Control over Mysore; alliance system, agreed to protect the Indian
rulers against external threats and internal
 Haidar Ali, in 1761, overthrew Nanjaraj disorder but, in return, the Indian rulers who
and established his own authority over accepted the Subsidiary Alliance system
Mysore were to agree to the stationing of British
 1755: Established a modern arsenal at contingent for whose maintenance they
Dindigal with the help of French experts would pay a subsidy to the British. The ruler
 Conquered Bidnur, Sunda, Sera, Canara under the system of alliance could neither
and Malabar enter into alliance with any other power nor
 He conquered Malabar because he
fight a war without prior permission from
wanted access to the Indian Ocean
the British. A British resident was stationed
 First and Second Anglo-Mysore War
at these ruling states that had the authority to
 1782: Succeeded by Tipu Sultan
interfere in state politics.
 Tipu Sultan was an innovator.
Introduced a new calendar, a new
Doctrine of Lapse and Doctrine of Escheat ;
system of coinage and new scales of
weights and measures.
 Keen interest in French Revolution The Doctrine of Lapse was an annexation
o Planted a ‘tree of liberty’ at policy devised by Lord Dalhousie, who was
Srirangapatnam and became a the Governor General of India between 1848
member of the Jacobin Club and 1856. There was a widespread custom
 Made efforts to build a modern navy of adoption among the Indian kings to
 Mysore flourished economically under secure an heir in the absence of a natural
Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan successor i.e. son. But as per the doctrine of
 Sent missions to France, Turkey, Iran lapse any Indian state created by or under
and Pegu Myanmar to develop foreign the direct influence (paramount) of the
trade British East India Company , as a vassal
 Some historians say that Tipu was a state under the British Subsidiary System,
religious fanatic. But facts don’t support would automatically ―lapse‖ or annexed by
this assertion. the British if the ruler was either
incompetent or died without a natural male
Haidar Ali was in command of the army in [Link] applying the doctrine of lapse,
Mysore from 1749; he became the ruler of Dalhousie annexed the States of Satara
the state in 1761. Until his defeat by Sir (1848 A.D.), Jaipur (1849 A.D.),
Eyre Coote in 1781 Haidar Ali continued his Sambhalpur (1849 A.D.), Bahat (1850
struggle against the Company. Mysore

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 Module 1 (History)

A.D.), Udaipur (1852 A.D.), Jhansi (1853 Muhammad Ibn-Aba-e-Wahid.

A.D.), and Nagpur (1854 A.D.). Its main centre was Patna,
Sittana (NW province).
Escheat is a common law doctrine that
Bhai Ram Singh (Disciple of
transfers the property of a person who died
Kuka Bhai Balak Singh). It is also
without heirs to the crown or state. It serves
called Namdhari Mission.
to ensure that property is not left in "limbo"
without recognized ownership Bhai Ram Singh asked his
Movement followers to worship cow & run
langars, wear white clothes
& not use any foreign
commodity or service. Bhai
Resistance to Colonial Ram Singh was deported to
Rule; Peasant; Tribal and Burma.
Cultural Renaissance Siddhu, Khanhu, Chand &
Santhal Bhareo (four sons of Chulu
Civil Rebellions and Tribal Uprisings The Santhal of Raj Mahal district).
backbone of the rebellions, their mass base Under the Permanent
and striking power came from the rack- Rebellion Settlement of 1793 the lands of
rented peasants, ruined artisans and Santhal passed to Zamidars &
demobilized soldiers CAUSES The major
later to European Indigo
cause of the civil rebellions was the rapid
1855-56 planters. 10,000 santhals were
changes the British introduced in the
killed in this rebellion. After
economy, administration and land revenue
system. The revenues were enhanced by this the area was put under the
increasing taxes. Thousands of zamindars direct control of the Governor
and poligars lost control over their land and General & was named
its revenue either due to the extinction of Santhal Paragana.
their rights by the colonial state or by the
forced sale of their rights over land because Vasudeo Balwant Phadke was born in
of their inability to meet the exorbitant land Maharashtra. He left the army & became a
revenue demanded. revolutionary. Later deported to Aden &
died in 1883. He may be justly called the
father of militant nationalism in India.
Shah Abdul Aziz & Saiyed
Wahabi Ahmad Raebarelvi. Objective
was to reform the Muslim
society& convert ‗Dur-ul-Harb‘ Launched by Lala Lajpat Rai
Movement (Non-Islamic community) into Kisan & Ajit Singh. The passing of
‗Dar-ul-Islam‘. the 1906 Punjab Land
Origianlly the movement was Revenue Act & heavy increase
started in Arabia by Movements in water tax caused panic. The
poem of Banke Dayal,

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 Module 1 (History)

‗Pagri Sambhal O Jatta‘ Causes for the revolt

became famous. Lala & Ajit
Singh were sentenced to 6 The revolt was a result of the accumulated
months grievances of the people against Company‘s
prison. Later the DSP of administration and a loathing for the
Layalpur Clough was character and policies of the colonial rule.
assassinated. Ajit Singh The causes can be classified as social,
escaped to economic, religious and military.
France while Bhai
Parmanand‘s house search WHY DID THE SEPOYS REVOLT?
yielded a book on bomb
making.  The conditions of service in the
Company’s army and cantonments
Khilafat movement in Malabar
increasingly came into conflict with the
Moplah incited communal feelings in religious beliefs and prejudices of the
Muslim peasants directed sepoys.
Rebellion towards Hindu land holders.  The unhappiness of the sepoys first
surfaced in 1824 when the 47th
Regiment of Barrackpur was ordered to
go to Burma. To the religious Hindu,
crossing the sea meant loss of caste.
The sepoys refused. The regiment was
disbanded and those who led the
Revolt of 1857 opposition were hanged.
 The rumors about the Government’s
Introduction secret designs to promote conversions
to Christianity further exasperated the
 During the Governor-General Lord sepoys.
Canning  The greased cartridges
 May 11, 1857. The Meerut incident.  They were also unhappy with the
Capture of Delhi. Proclaiming B S Jazar emoluments
as the emperor.  Discrimination and racism
 Almost half the Company’s sepoy  Misery brought to the peasants by the
strength of 232224 opted out of their British rule. E.g. the land revenue
loyalty to their regimental colours. system imposed in Oudh, where about
 Kanpur: Nana Saheb; Lucknow: Begum 75000 sepoys came from, was very
Hazrat Mahal; Bareilly: Khan Bahadur; harsh.
Jagdishpur (Ara): Kunwar Singh; Jhansi:  The civilians also participated
Rani Lakshmi Bai  After the capture of Delhi, a letter was
 Only the Madras army remained totally issued to the neighboring states asking
loyal. Sikh regiment as well remained for support.
largely loyal.  A court of administrators was
established in Delhi

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 Ill-equipped, the rebels carried on the Shah Mal: He belonged to a clan of Jat
struggle for about a year cultivators in parganan Barout in UP.
 The country as a whole was not behind During the revolt, he mobilized the headmen
them. The merchants, intelligentsia and and cultivators of chaurasee des (84 villages:
Indian rulers not only kept aloof but his kinship area), moving at night from
actively supported the British. village to village, urging people to rebel
 Almost half the Indian soldiers not only against the British.
did not revolt but fought against their
own countrymen. Maulvi Ahmadullah Shah: Maulvi
 Apart from a commonly shared hatred Ahmadullah Shah was one of the many
for alien rule, the rebels had no political maulvis who played an important part in the
perspective or definite vision of the revolt of 1857. 1856, he was seen moving
future from village to village preaching jehad
 Delhi fell on September 20, 1857. (religious war) against the British and urging
 Rani of Jhansi died fighting on June 17,
people to rebel. he was elected by the
1858
mutinous 22nd Native Infantry as their
 Nana Saheb escaped to Nepal hoping to
leader. He fought in the famous Battle of
revive the struggle.
Chinhat in which the British forces under
 Kunwar Singh died on May 9, 1958
Henry Lawrence were defeated.
 Tantia tope carried on guerrilla warfare
until April 1959 after which he was
betrayed by a zamindar, captured and Social Reforms
put to death. Movements in Hindu
Important Persons relating to the
Community : Brahma
Revolt Samaj, Arya Samaj, Ram
Krishna Mission,
Prarthann Samaj and
Theosophical Society of
Bahadur Shah Zafar: BSZ was the last
Mughal emperor of India. India.

Nana Saheb Reformers like Raja Rammohan Roy,

Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar, Swami
Rani Lakshmi Bai Dayanand Saraswati, Jyotiba Phule, Sir
Syed Ahmed Khan and Pandita Ramabai
Kunwar Singh understood that ignorance and backwardness
in the society was responsible for hindering
Nawab Wajid Ali Shah its progress and development. They studied
the religious scriptures and criticized the
Birjis Qadr: The son of Wajid Ali Shah and prevalent religious and social practices.
the leader of the revolt in Lucknow. According to them, society should be based
on the concepts of liberty and equality both
for men and women and this was possible

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 Module 1 (History)

only by the spread of modern and scientific Ramakrishna Paramhansa (1836-1886)

education especially among the highlighted the essential unity of religions
[Link] movements came to be called and the need to lead a spiritual life. He
socio-religious movement because the believed that the different religions of the
reformers felt that no change is possible in a world are only different ways to reach the
society without reforming the religion. same [Link] Mission are based
on ancient and traditional concepts amidst
Raja Rammohan Roy's efforts to fight the increasing westernization and
social evils were supported by the then modernization. The Mission was conceived
Governor General of India, Sir William and founded by swami Vivekananda in
Bentinck. A law was passed in 1829 making 1897, eleven years after the death of
Sati illegal and punishable. He also made Ramkrishna. He considered and emphasized
efforts to advocate widow re-marriage and that Krishna, Hari , Rama, Christ, Allah are
condemned child marriage. He advocated different names for the same God. Unlike
the importance of Vedas in reforming the Arya Samaj, Ramakrishna Mission
religion and upheld the fundamental unity recognizes the utility and value of image
among all [Link] started a campaign worship in developing spiritual fervor and
for the abolition of sati, condemned worship of the Eternal Omnipotent God.
polygamy and concubinage, denounced
casteism, advocated the rights of Hindu Swami Vivekanand believed in the spirit of
widows to remarry. He rejected Christianity Vedanta and the essential unity and equality
. denied the divinity of Jesus Christ , but of all religions. He laid stress on the removal
accepted the humanism of Europe Thus, of religious superstitions, obscurantism, and
Rammohan Roy sought to effect a cultural outdated social customs. He tried to remove
synthesis between the East and the West. caste rigidities, and untouchability. He
motivated the people to respect women
The Arya Samaj founded by Swami while he himself worked for women‘s
Dayanand Saraswati in 1875 undertook the upliftment and education. Vivekananda
task of reforming Hindu religion in North attached primary importance to the removal
India. He considered Vedas to be infallible of ignorance among the people.
and the foundation of all knowledge. He
rejected all those religious thoughts which On 7 September 1875, HPB, Col. Olcott and
were in conflict with the Vedas. He believed W. Q. Judge, together with several others,
that every person had the right to have direct formed a Society which they chose to call
access to [Link] disregarded the authority The Theosophical Society, for promulgating
of the later Hindu scriptures like the puranas the ancient teachings of Theosophy, or the
and described them as the work of lesser Wisdom concerning the Divine which had
men a responsible for the evil practices of been the spiritual basis of other great
idol worship and other superstitious beliefs movements of the past, such as
in hindu religion. Dayanand condemned idol Neoplatonism, Gnosticism, and the Mystery
worship and preached unity of Godhead. Schools of the classical world. The influence
of Theosophical Society spread under Annie
Beasant in 1893 who played an important
role in India‘s struggle for freedom. She and

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her associates advocated the revival and Abdul Wahab of Arabia and Shah
strengthening of the ancient religions of Waliullah, a Delhi saint. The movement
Hinduism, Zoroastrianism and Buddhism. wasprimarily religious in its origin. It soon
The members of that his society believe that assumed the character of a class struggle in
a special relationship can be established some places, especially in Bengal.
between a persons soul and God by Irrespective of communal distinctions,
comtemplation, prayer , revelations etc. The peasants united against their [Link]
Society accepts the Hindu beliefs in are six defining precepts in Wahabism,
reincarnationtion. Krma and draws about which al-Wahab wrote in his book
inspiration from the philosophy of the The Three Fundamentals. They are the
Upanishads and Samkhya, Yoga and Tawhid, (the unity of God), the Tawassul
Vedanta school of though. It aims to work (Intercession), Ziyarat al-Qubur (visitations
for universal Brotherhood of Humanity of graves and erections of tombs), Takfir
without distinction of race, creed., sex, caste (the charge of disbelief), Bid'ah
or colour. The Society also seeks to (innovation), and Ijtihad and Taqlid(original
investigate the unexplained laws of nature legal opinions and the imitation of tradition).
and the powers latent in man. The
Theosophical Movement came to be allied Sayyid Ahmad Khan (1817–98) called for
with Hindu Renaissance. the study of European science and
[Link] 1866, he formed the British
Indian Association. He pointed out that there
was no fundamental contradiction between
Social Reforms Quran and Natural Science and the new
circumstances demanded dissemination of
Movements in Muslim English language within an Islamic context.
Community : Wahabi He founded the Mohammedan Anglo
Movement & Aligarh Oriental College at Aligarh in 1875 which
went on to become the most important
Movement seminary for modern higher education
among Muslims. At the elementary level,
The Muslims reformers in India launched students followed the standard government
many religious movements. Some tried to curriculum in a carefully constructed Islamic
revive the religion and other tried to reform environment. In 1878, the college classes
the religion. During the 19th century were also started and non-Muslims were
religion reforms movement were on the also enrolled. In 1886, Sayyid Ahmad Khan
peak. Movements like Deoband Movement, founded the Mohammadan Anglo Oriental
Ahamadiya movement, Aligarh Movement; Educational Conference.
Wahabi Movement has influenced the
masses and made them think about their
religion and their status. Struggle for Raising
Women's status :
The leader of the Wahabi movement was Abolition of Sati System,
Syed Ahmed Barelvi of Rae Bareilly who
was greatly influenced by the teachings of Widow Marriage Act,

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 Module 1 (History)

Consent Bill,Stress on the divinity of Jesus Christ , but accepted the

humanism of Europe Thus, Rammohan Roy
Female education sought to effect a cultural synthesis between
the East and the West.
Struggle for Raising Women's status
Patriarchy remains deeply entrenched in The Hindu Widows' Remarriage Act of
Indian social structure, influencing the 1856, enacted in response to the campaign
structure of its political and social of Pandit Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar,
institutions and determining the provided legal safeguards against loss of
opportunities open to women and men. The certain forms of inheritance for a remarrying
negotiation and conflict between patriarchy Hindu widow, though, under the Act,
and the women‘s movement are central to the widowforsook any inheritance due her
the Struggle for Raising Women's status in from her deceased [Link] Chandra
Indian Society. Ignorance and illiteracy of Vidyasagar championed women education
Women had given birth to innumerable and campaigned hard for widow remarriage.
social evils like sati (bright burning), child Parsi social reformer, Behramji Malabari
marriage, prohibition of widow remarriage, also campaigned for widow remarriage and
dowry, devadasi system etc. published a set of notes on ‗Infant Marriage‘
and ‗Enforced Widowhood‘
Sati or suttee is an obsolete Hindu funeral
custom where a widow immolates herself on The Age of Consent Act, 1891, also Act X
her husband's pyre or commits suicide in of 1891, was a legislation enacted in British
another fashion shortly after her husband's India on 19 March 1891 which raised the
[Link] high incidence of sati in Bengal age of consent for sexual intercourse for all
province during colonial period was due to girls, married or unmarried, from ten to
the existence of Dayabhaga system which twelve years in all jurisdictions, its violation
gave property rights to the childless widow subject to criminal prosecution as rape.
and therefore in order to keep the property
rights of the family intact, the widow was The Woods
forced to go [Link] Rammohan Despatch of 1854 put stress on female ed
Roy's efforts to fight the social evils ucation in India. The report observed tha
were supported by the then Governor t the
General of India, Sir William Bentinck. A importance of female education in India
law was passed in 1829 making Sati illegal cannot
and punishable. He also made efforts to be overrated; and we have observed with ple
advocate widow re-marriage and condemned asure the evidence which is now afforded of
child marriage. He advocated the importance an increased desire on the part of many of th
of Vedas in reforming religion and upheld e natives of India to give a good education
the fundamental unity among all to their daughters.
[Link] started a campaign for the
abolition of sati, condemned polygamy and
concubinage, denounced casteism, Land Revenue System
advocated the rights of Hindu widows to under British Rule
remarry. He rejected Christianity . denied

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 Module 1 (History)

was approved by Michael Dundas, The

President of Board of Control and William
Since the grant of diwani for Bengal, Bihar Pete the P.M. of England.
and Orissa in 1765, the major concern of the
East India Company's administration in Permanent Settlement
India was to collect as much revenue as
possible. Agriculture was the main basis of The Permanent Settlement or Zamindari
economy and the main source of income and Sysem was introduced by Lord Corniwallis
hence, although the nawabi administration in 1793. In Bengal, North Cauvery Delta in
was retained with Muhammad Reza Khan Madras Presidency and Varanasi division. It
acting as the Naib Diwan for the Company, covered altogether 19% of the total
several land revenue experiments were cultivable land under company rule.
introduced in haste to maximise extraction.
Terms and Conditions of the System
In 1772, Warren hastings introduced a new
system, known as the farming system.  Zamindars were recognized as owner
European District Collectors, as the of the lands. Zamindars were given
nomenclature suggested, were to be in the rights to collect the rent from the
charge of revenue collection, while the peasants.
revenue collecting right was farmed out to  The realized amount would be
the highest bidders. About the periodicity of divided into 11 parts. 1/11 of the
the settlements, a number of experiments share belongs to Zamindars and
were made. 10/11 of the share belongs to East
India Company.
But the farming system ultimately failed to  The Zamindars were also given
improve the situation, as the farmers tried to Judicial powers
extract as much as possible without any  The Sunset Law come into force in
concern for the production process. The the event of Zamindars becoming
burden of revenue demand on th peasants defaulters.
increased as a result and often it was so  The system was introduced for a
onerous that it could not be collected at all. period of 10 years.
The net outcome of this whole period of rash
experimentation was the ruination of the
agricultural population. In 1784, Lord
Cornwallis was therefore sent to India with a Effect of the system
specific mandate to streamline the revenue
administration.  The effects of this system both on
the zamindars and ryots were
Up to 1793 A.D., The East India Company disastrous. As the revenue fixed by
continued to follow the revenue farming the system was too high, many
system in Bengal Presidency. In 1782, Sir zamindars defaulted on payments.
John Shore Committee was appointed to Their property was seized and
draft a new land revenue policy. The policy distress sales were conducted leading

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 Module 1 (History)

to their ruin. The rich zamindars who  In many areas no surveys were
led luxurious lives left their villages carried out and the tax of a ryot was
and migrated into towns. They assessed on an arbitrary basis, based
entrusted their rent collection to on village accounts.
agents who exacted all kinds of  The cultivating peasants were,
illegal taxes besides the legal ones therefore, gradually impoverished,
from the ryots. and increasingly indebted and could
 This had resulted in a great deal of not invest for the extension of
misery amongst the peasants and cultivation.
farmers. Therefore Lord Cornwallis‘  The Ryorwari system did not also
idea of building a system of eliminate village elites as inter
benevolent land-lordism failed. mediaries between the government
Though initially the Company gained and the peasantry. As privileged
financially, in the long run the rents and special rights of the
Company suffered financial loss mirasidars were recognised and caste
because land productivity was high, privileges of the Brahmans
income from it was meagre since it respected.
was a fixed sum. It should be noted
that in pre- British period a share on Mahalwari System
the crop was fixed as land tax.
Mahalwari system was introduced in 1833
Ryotwari Settlement during the period of William Bentick. It was
introduced in Central Province, North-West
The Ryotwari experiment was started by Frontier, Agra, Punjab, Gangetic Valley, etc
Alexander Reed in Baramahal in 1792 and of British [Link] Mahalwari system had
was continued by Thomas Munro from 1801 many provisions of both the Zamindari
when he was asked to take charge of the System and Ryotwari System. In this
revenue administration of the Ceded system, the land was divided into Mahals.
Districts. Instead of zamindars they began to Each Mahal comprises one or more villages.
collect revenue directly from the village , Ownership rights were vested with the
fixing the amount each village had to pay. peasants. The villages committee was held
After this they proceeded to assess each responsible for collection of the taxes.
cultivator or ryot separately and thus
evolved the Ryotwari System. It created Effects of the Land Revenue Policy
individual proprietary right in land, but it
was vested in the peasants, rather than in the  Land become a Commodity for the
zamindars. first time in Indian history
 Property rights in the land created for
Effects of System first time
 New rural classes were formed- The
 It raised the revenue income of the absentee landlords, money lenders
government, but put the cultivators and age earning working class.
in great distress.

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 Module 1 (History)

 Commercialisation of agriculture o Peasant: Govt took a large

encouraged. As a result , shortage of part of produce away as land
food crops took place causing revenue. Laws favoured the
famines. The 1832 Ganjan Zamindars
famine(Orissa) and 1875 deccan o Artisans: Foreign competition
famine were the worst famines. ruined the industry
 The revenue policy was the single o Workers: The government
most important cause for all the sided with the capitalists
major civilian rebellions in modern o Intelligentsia: They found
India, against the British. that the British policies were
guided by the interests of
British capitalists and were
keeping the country
economically backward.
Politically, the British had no
commitment of guiding India
towards self-government.
o Indian capitalists: the growth
of Indian industries was
Rise of National constrained by the
unfavourable trade, tariff,
Movement and Indian taxation and transport
National Congress policies of the government.
o Zamindars, landlords and
Why did national movement arise? princes were the only ones
whose interests coincided
 Indian nationalism rose to meet the with those of the British.
challenges of foreign domination Hence they remained loyal to
 The British rule and its direct and them.
indirect consequences provided the  Hence, it was the intrinsic nature of
material and the moral and foreign imperialism and its harmful
intellectual conditions for the effect on the lives of the Indian
development of a national movement people that led to the rise of the
in India. national movement. This movement
 Clash of interest between the could be called the national
interests of the Indian people with movement because it united people
British interests in India from different parts of the country as
 Increasingly, the British rule became never before for a single cause.
the major cause of India‘s economic
backwardness
 Every class gradually discovered that
their interests were suffering at the What factors strengthened and facilitated
hands of the British the national movement?

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 Module 1 (History)

 Administration and Economic o Large number of nationalist

Unification of the country newspapers appeared in the
o Introduction of modern trade second half of the 19th
and industries on all-India century
scale had increasingly made o They criticized the policies of
India‘s economic life a single the British government and
whole and interlinked the put forth the Indian point of
economic fate of people view
living in different parts of the o National literature in form of
country. essays, novels and poetry
o Introduction of railways, also played an important role.
telegraph and unified postal Bamkin Chandra, Tagore:
system brought together Bengali; Bhartendu
different parts of the country Harishchandra: Hindi;
and promoted contact among Lakshmikanth Bezbarua:
people like never before. Assamese; Vishnu Shastri
o This unification led to the Chiplunkar: Marathi;
emergence of the Indian Subramanya Bharti: Tamil;
nation Altaf Husain Hali: Urdu
 Western Thought and Education  Rediscovery of India‘s past
o A large number of Indians o The British had lowered the
imbibed a modern rational, self confidence of the Indian
secular, democratic and through the propaganda that
nationalist political outlook Indians are incapable of self-
o They began to study, admire government
and emulate the o Nationalist leaders referred to
contemporary nationalist the cultural heritage of India
movements of European to counter this propaganda.
nations They referred to political
o The western education per se achievements of rulers like
did not create the national Ashoka, Chandragupta
movement. It only enabled Vikramaditya and Akbar.
the educated Indians to o However, some nationalists
imbibe western thought and went to the extent of
thus to assume the leadership glorifying the past
of the national movement and uncritically. They
to give it a democratic and emphasized on the
modern direction achievements of ancient India
o Modern education created a and not medieval India. This
certain uniformity and encouraged the growth of
community of outlook and communal sentiments.
interests among the education  Racial arrogance of the rulers
Indians.
 Role of Press and Literature

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 Module 1 (History)

o Englishmen adopted a tone of o Viraraghavachari, Anand

racial superiority in their Charloo, G Subramanian
dealings with the Indians Aiyer, 1884
o Failure of justice whenever  Bombay Presidency Association
an Englishman was involved o Pherozshah Mehta, K T
in a dispute with an Indian. Telang, Badruddin Tyabji,
o Indians kept out of European 1885
clubs and often were not  These organizations were narrow in
permitted to travel in same their scope and functioning. They
compartment as Englishmen dealt mostly with local questions and
their membership were confined to a
few people belonging to a single city
or province
Rise of Indian National Congress

Indian National Congress

Predecessors of INC
 Indian National Congress was
 East India Association founded on 28 December 1885 by 72
o By Dadabhai Naoroji in 1866 political workers. A O Hume was the
in London first secretary and was instrumental
o To discuss the Indian in establishing the Congress
question and to influence the  First session in Bombay. President:
British public men to discuss W C Bonnerjee
Indian welfare  With the formation of INC, the
o Branches of the association in Indian National Movement was
prominent Indian cities launched in a small but organized
 Indian Association manner
o Surendranath Banerjee and  The Congress itself was to serve not
Ananda Mohan Bose in 1876, as a party but as a movement
Calcutta  Congress was democratic. The
o The aim of creating strong delegates to INC were elected by
public opinion in the country different local organizations and
on political questions and the groups
unification of the Indian  Sovereignty of the people
people on a common political  In 1890, Kadambini Ganguli, the
programme first woman graduate of Calcutta
 Poona Sarvajanik Sabha University addressed the Congress
o Justice Ranade, 1870 session
 Madras Mahajan Sabha  Safety Valve Theory
o The INC was started under
the official direction,

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 Module 1 (History)

guidance and advice of Lord they were not united on all India
Dufferin, the Viceroy, to level. Hence need for INC was felt.
provide a safe, mild, peaceful  In order to give birth to the national
and constitutional outlet or movement
safety valve for the rising o Creation of national
discontent among the masses, leadership was important
which was inevitably leading o Collective identification was
towards a popular and violent created
revolution.

Does the safety valve theory explain the

formation of Congress? Aims of INC

 The safety valve theory is inadequate  Promotion of friendly relations

and misleading between nationalist political workers
 INC represented the urge of the from different parts of the country
Indian educated class to set up a  Development and consolidation of
national organization to work for the feeling of national unity
their political and economic irrespective of caste, religion or
development province
 A number of organizations, as  Formulation of popular demands and
mentioned above, had already been their presentation before the
started by the Indians towards that government
end  Training and organization of public
 Hume‘s presence in Congress was opinion in the country
used to allay official suspicions

 The first major objective of the

Indian national movement was to
promote weld Indians into a nation,
Why was there a need for an All-India to create an Indian identity
organization?  Fuller development and
consolidation of sentiments of
 Vernacular Press Act, 1878 national unity
 Ilbert Bill (1883) which would allow o Efforts for unity: In an effort
Indian judges to try Europeans was to reach all regions, it was
opposed by the European community decided to rotate the congress
and was finally enacted in a highly session among different parts
compromised state in 1884. of the country. The President
 The Indians realized that they could was to belong to a region
not get the Ilbert bill passed because other than where the congress
session was being held.

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o To reach out to the followers

of all religions and to remove
the fears of the minorities, a
rule was made at the 1888
session that no resolution was Moderates and
to be passed to which an
overwhelming majority of Extremists in Indian
Hindu or Muslim delegates Independence Struggle
objected.
o In 1889, a minority clause Early phase of Indian National Congress
was adopted in the resolution was that of Moderators,They expected that if
demanding reform of the problems of‘ the nation were brought to
legislative councils. light through proper propaganda, the
According to the clause, colonial government would take steps to
wherever Parsis, Christians, improve matters. Thus in the initial years
Muslims or Hindus were a through lectures, writings in newspapers the
minority their number elected nationalists put forward the main problems
to the councils would not be of the nation and ways in which they could
less than their proportion in be remedied. They believed in loyalty to the
the population. British Crown. They believed that the
o To build a secular nation, the British Presence in India was a blessing to
congress itself had to be Indians and they relied on the British to
intensely secular guide the Politics in India. Some of them
 The second major objective of the professed that the British rule has done
early congress was to create a much good in India by cleansing the Indian
common political platform or society of its ills like the customs of sati,
programme around which political untouchability, child marriage, etc.
workers in different parts of the Moderates also praised the British for
country could gather and conduct introducing in India contemporary
their political activities. development in science and technology.
o Due to its focus solely on
political issues congress did The prominent moderate leaders were
not take up the question of Womesh Chandra Banerjee, Dadabhai
social reform. Navroji, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, Romesh
 Since this form of political Chunder Dutt, Pherozeshah Mehta, Madan
participation was new to India, the Mohan Malaviya, Sir Surendranath
arousal, training, organization and Banerjee, Sir Dinshaw Edulji Wacha, Justice
consolidation of public opinion was Mahadeo Govind Ranade, Badruddin
seen as a major task by the congress Tyabji, Sir William Wedderburn.
leaders.
o Going beyond the redressal The period from 1905 was known as the era
of immediate grievances and of extremism in the Indian National
organize sustained political Movement. The extremists or the aggressive
activity.

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 Module 1 (History)

nationalists believed that success could be fairplay. They were strongly critical of the
achieved through bold means. The important methods of peaceful and, constitutional
extremist leaders were Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal agitation
Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin Chandra Pal and 4. Deteriorating Economic Condition of
Aurobindo Ghosh. India. The economic miseries of the closing
years of the 19th century provided a
Main causes of developement of Extremism congenial atmosphere for the growth of
in Congress were as follows:- extremism in Indian national activity.
5. Contemporary International Influences.
1. Recognition of the True Nature of British Events outside India exercised a powerful
Rule. The British rule and its policies were influence on the younger generation. The
responsible for the economic ruin of India humiliating treatment metedout to Indians in
and her deepening poverty. Dadabhai British colonies, especially in South Africa,
Naoroji, for example, exposed the created anti- Britishfeelings. Further,
exploitative nature of British rule in India nationalist movements in Egypt, Persia,
and proved that Britain was „bleeding India Turkey and Russia gave Indians new hopes
white? and the constant „drain of wealth? and new aspirations.
from India was directly responsible for 6. Curzon‘s Reactionary Policies. Curzon?s
India?s economic miseries. seven-year rule in India which was full of
Nationalist leaders like Ananda Charlu, R.N. missions, omissions and commissions
Mudholkar, D.E. Wacha, G.K. Gokhale, created a sharp reaction in the Indian mind.
Madan Mohan Malaviya too exposed the 7. The Partition of Bengal. The worst and
exploitative nature of British rule in India. most-hated aspect of Curzon?s
R.C. Dutt and G.V. Joshi, examined thread- administration was the partition of Bengal
bare the true nature of British Land Revenue into two provinces of Bengal and Eastern
policy. Bengal and Assam in 1905.

2. Reaction to Increasing Westernization.

The new leadership felt the stranglehold of
excessive Westernization in Indian life, Swadeshi Movement
thought and politics—Christianity and
utilitarianism (visible in the teachings of
Brahma Samaj) were a
challenge to Indian religion and thought.

[Link] with the Achievement of

the Congress. The younger elements within
the Congress were dissatisfied with the The Home Rule
achievements of the Congress during the Movement
first 15-20 years and were disgusted with the
cold and reactionary  After being released in 1914, Tilak
attitude of the Government. They had lost all sought re-entry into Congress. Annie
faith in the British sense of justice and Besant and Gokhale supported. But

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finally Pherozshah Mehta won and Karnataka, and Central Provinces,

Tilak was not admitted. and two in Berar.
 Tilak and Besant decided to start the  On 23rd July 1916, on Tilak‘s sixtieth
home rule movement on their own. birthday the government sent a
 In early 1915, Annie Besant (and S notice asking him to show cause why
Subramaniya Iyer) launched a he should not be bound over for
campaign through her two good behavior for a period of one
newspapers, New India and year and demanding securities of Rs
Commonweal, and organized public 60000
meetings and conferences to demand  Tilak was defended by a team of
that India be granted self- lawyers led by Mohammad Ali
government on the lines of the White Jinnah. He won. Tilak used the
colonies after the War. From April opportunity to further the Home Rule
1915, her tone became more movement.
peremptory and her stance more  In Besant‘s league, the main thrust of
aggressive. activity was directed towards
 At the annual session of the building up an agitation around the
Congress in December 1915 it was demand for Home Rule. This was to
decided that the extremists be be achieved by promoting political
allowed to rejoin the Congress. The education and discussion.
opposition from the Bombay group  Lucknow Pact: 1916 in the Congress
has been greatly weakened by the Session at Lucknow. Also known as
death of Pherozshah Mehta. Congress League Pact. Extremists
 Tilak and Annie Besant set up two were accepted back in congress. An
different home rule leagues. agreement was reached between
 Tilak‘s league was to work in Muslim League and Congress.
Maharashtra (excluding Bombay  The turning point in the movement
city), Karnataka, the central came with the arrest of Annie Besant
provinces and Berar and Annie in June 1917
Besant‘s league was given the  There was wide agitation and many
charged of the rest of India. leaders joined the league.
 Tilak was totally secular in nature.  The government agreed to grant self
There was no trace of religious rule but the timing for such a change
appeal. The demand for Home Rule was to be decided by the government
was made on a wholly secular basis. alone.
o ―Home rule is my birthright,  After the great advance in 1917, the
and I will have it‖ movement gradually dissolved.
 The British were aliens not because o The moderates were pacified
they belonged to another religion but by the government‘s
because they did not act in the Indian assurance of reforms after
interest Besant‘s release.
 Tilak‘s league was organized into six o The publication of scheme of
branches, one each in Central government reforms in July
Maharashtrra, Bombay city, 1918 further created

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divisions. Many rejected it legislature. The departments that

while others were for giving made up the "steel frame" of British
it a trial. rule — finance, revenue, and home
o Later, Tilak went to England affairs — were retained by executive
to fight a case. With Besant councillors who were nominated by
unable to give a firm lead, the Governor.
and Tilak away in England,  The Hunter Committee report
the movement was left praised the actions of general Dyer.
leaderless.  Khilafat Movement
o For support of Turkey
 Achievements of the movement
o Khilafat Committee formed
o The achievement of the
under the leadership of Ali
Home Rule movement was
Brothers, Maulana Azad,
that it created a generation of
Hakim Ajmal Khan and
ardent nationalists who
Hasrat Mohani
formed the backbone of the
o The promises made to the
national movement in the
Khilafat Committee were not
coming years.
kept after the World War.
o The Home rule leagues also
o The All-India Khilafat
created organizational links
Conference held at Delhi in
between town and country
November 1919 decided to
which were to prove
withdraw all cooperation
invaluable in later years.
from the government if their
o By popularizing the idea of
demands were not met.
self-government, it generated
o On June 9 1920, the Khilafat
a widespread pro-nationalist
Committee at Allahabad
atmosphere in the country.
unanimously accepted the
o The movement set the right
suggestion of non-
mood for the entry of
cooperation and asked
Mahatma Gandhi and take
Gandhiji to lead the
the leadership.
movement.
 Khilafat movement cemented Hindu-
Non Co-operation and Muslim unity
Khilafat Movement o Gandhiji looked upon the
Khilafat agitation as ―an
 Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms 1919: opportunity of uniting Hindus
Dyarchy and Mohammedans as would
 In a system called "dyarchy," the not arise in a hundred years‖
nation-building departments of  The non-cooperation movement was
government — agriculture, launched on August 1, 1920.
education, public works, and the like Lokmanya Tilak passed away on the
— were placed under ministers who same day.
were individually responsible to the

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 Module 1 (History)

 People countrywide observed hartal fifteen members to look after

and took out processions. its day to day affairs.
 The congress met in September at o Provincial congress
Calcutta and accepted non-co- committees were now
operation as its own. organized on a linguistic
 The programme of non-cooperation basis.
included: o Mahalla and ward
o Surrender of titles and honors committees were formed.
o Boycott of government o The membership fee was
affiliated schools and reduced to 4 annas a years to
colleges, law courts, foreign enable poor to become
cloth and could be extended members.
to resignation from o This was not without
government services. opposition however. Some
o Mass civil disobedience members still believed in the
including the non-payment of traditional methods. Leaders
taxes. like Jinnah, GS Khaparde,
o National schools and colleges Bipin Chandra Pal and Annie
were to be set up Besant left congress during
o Panchayats were to be this time.
established to settle disputes
o Hand-spinning and weaving  Gandhiji, along with the Ali brother,
was encouraged undertook a nationwide tour to
o People were asked to address people.
maintain Hindu-Muslim  Thousands of students left
unity, give up untouchability government schools and joined
and observe strict non- national schools.
violence.  The most successful item of the
programme was the boycott of
 Changes in Congress to attain the foreign cloth.
new objective:  Picketing of toddy shops was also
o At the Nagpur session in very popular.
1920 changes in the  Students let government schools and
Constitution of Congress colleges. IT was during this time that
were made. Jamia Milia Islamia of Aligarh, the
o The goal of congress was Bihar Vidyapith, the Kashi
changed from the attainment Vidyapith and the Gujarat Vidyapith
of self-government by came into existence.
constitutional and legal  Lawyers such as Deshbandhu CR
means to the attainment of Das, Motilal Nehru, Rajendra
Swaraj by peaceful and Prasad, Saifudiin Kitchlew, C
legitimate means. Rajagopalachari, Sardar Patel, T
o The Congress now had a Prakasam and Asaf Ali gave up their
Working Committee of legal practice.

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 Module 1 (History)

 Tilak Swarajya Fund was started to cooperation movement came to an

finance the NCM. end.
 In 1921, Khilafat Committee issued a  Assessing the Withdrawal:
resolution that no muslim should o Some scholars say that
serve in the British Indian army. Gandhiji withdrew the
 The visit of the Prince of Wales on movement because he wanted
17th November 1921 was observed as to protect the interests of the
a day of hartal all over the country. propertied class.
 The Congress Volunteer Corps o Some argue that there was no
emerged as a powerful parallel logic why a small incident
police. should lead to withdrawal of
 By December 1921, the government the movement itself.
felt that things were going too far o However, government could
and announced a change of policy by use Chauri Chaura to justify
declaring the volunteer corps illegal its repression of the
and arresting all those who claimed movement.
to be its members. o If movement was started at
 Thousands of peasants and tenants that time, it would have been
participated in the movement. defeated due to the repression
 In Punjab, the Akali movement to of the government.
remove corrupt mahants from the o Gandhiji was protecting the
Gurudwaras was started. movement from likely
 Assam: Tea plantation workers went repression, and the people
on strike. Midnapore: peasants from demoralization.
refused to pay Union Board o Mass movements tend to ebb
taxes. Guntur (Chirala): in some time. Hence,
Agitation led by Duggirala withdrawal is a part of the
Gopalakrishayya Mala strategy of mass movements.
bar: Mohlahs (muslim peasants)  Gandhiji was tried in 1922 and
created a powerful anti-zamindari sentenced to six years‘
movement. imprisonment.
 As the government refused to yield, o He invited the court to award
Gandhiji announced that mass civil him ―the highest penalty that
disobedience would begin in Bardoli can be inflicted upon me for
taluqa of Surat. what in law is a deliberate
 However, in Chauri Chaura, crime, and what appears to be
Gorakhpur on 5 February 1922 the highest duty of a citizen‖.
crowd set fire on a police station and
killed some policemen. On hearing  Positives out of the non-cooperation
this, Gandhiji decided to withdraw movement:
the movement. o Congress started
 The congress working committee commanding the support and
ratified his decision. Thus, on sympathy of vast sections of
February 12, 1922, the non- the Indian people.

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 Module 1 (History)

o Millions of Indians became o Congress suspended the Civil

politically involved. Women Disobedience Movement
were drawn into the o Agreed to take part in the
movement. second RTC
o Muslims participated heavily
and communal unity was  Quit India Movemen
maintained.
o Strengthened the national
movement. Nationalist
sentiments and the national
movement had reached the  The partition of
remotest corners of the land.
o People gained tremendous India and its
self-confidence and self- consequences
esteem.

Civil Disobedience
Movement and Gandhi- Integration of Princely
Irwin Pact, 1931 States
 Started by Gandhi on 12th March
1930 with the Dandi March. Reached
Dandi on April 6. Under the plan of 3 June, more than 562
 Defiance of forest laws in princely states were given the option of
Maharashtra, Central Province and joining either India or Pakistan, or choosing
Karnataka. Refusal to pay chaukidari independence. Indian nationalists and large
tax in Eastern India. segments of the public feared that if these
 Wide participation of women states did not accede, most of the people and
 Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan organized territory would be fragmented. The
Khudai Khidmatgars (aka Red Congress as well as senior British officials
Shirts) considered Patel the best man for the task of
 Nagaland: Rani Gaidilieu achieving unification of the princely states
 First RTC, 1930 with the Indian dominion.
o Congress boycotted
 Gandhi-Irwin Pact, 1931 Patel asked [Link] a senior civil servant
o Government agreed to release with whom he had worked over the partition
the political prisoners who of India to become his right-hand as chief
had remained non-violent secretary of the States Ministry. On 6 May
o Right to make salt for 1947, Patel began lobbying the princes,
consumption attempting to make them receptive towards
o Right to peaceful picketing of dialogue with the future Government and
liquor and foreign cloth shops trying to forestall potential conflicts. Patel

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used social meetings and unofficial Mountbatten had pointed out that
surroundings to engage most monarchs, "geographic compulsions" meant that most
inviting them to lunch and tea at his home in of them must choose India.
Delhi At these meetings, Patel stated that
there was no inherent conflict between the In effect, he took the position that only the
Congress and the princely order. states that shared a border with Pakistan
Nonetheless, he stressed that the princes could choose to accede to it. The Nawab of
would need to accede to India in good faith Junagadh, a princely state located on the
by 15 August 1947. south-western end of Gujarat and having no
common border with Pakistan, chose to
Patel invoked the patriotism of India's accede to Pakistan ignoring Mountbatten's
monarchs, asking them to join in the views, arguing that it could be reached from
freedom of their nation and act as Pakistan by sea. The rulers of two states that
responsible rulers who cared about the were subject to the suzerainty of Junagadh—
future of their people. He persuaded the Mangrol and Babariawad—reacted to this
princes of 565 states of the impossibility of by declaring their independence from
independence from the Indian republic, Junagadh and acceding to India. In response,
especially in the presence of growing the Nawab of Junagadh militarily occupied
opposition from their subjects. the states. The rulers of neighboring states
reacted angrily, sending their troops to the
He proposed favorable terms for the merger, Junagadh frontier and appealed to the
including creation of privy purses for the Government of India for assistance.
descendants of the rulers. While
encouraging the rulers to act with patriotism, A group of Junagadhi people, led by
Patel did not rule out force, setting . deadline Samaldas Gandhi, formed a government-
of 15 August 1947 for them to sign the in-exile, the Aarzi Hukumat ("temporary
instrument of accession document. All but government"). India believed that if
three of the states willingly merged into the Junagadh was permitted to go to Pakistan,
Indian union—only Jammu and Kashmir, the communal tension already simmering in
junagadh and Hyderabad did not fall into Gujarat would worsen, and refused to accept
basket. the accession. The government pointed out
that the state was 80% Hindu, and called for
Integration of Junagadh: The West a plebiscite to decide the question of
Gujarat known as Saurastra constituted a accession. Simultaneously, they cut off
number of small states which did not have supplies of fuel and coal to Junagadh,
much potential from the point of view of severed air and postal links, sent troops to
economic and political independence. In all, the frontier, and reoccupied the principalities
327 such States existed in Gujarat. Sardar of Mangrol and Babariawad that had
succeeded in bringing the small states acceded to India.
together and it was a very important step
towards national solidarity although the Pakistan agreed to discuss a plebiscite,
states were in theory free to choose whether subject to the withdrawal of Indian troops, a
they wished to accede to India or Pakistan, condition India rejected. On 26 October, the

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Nawab and his family fled to Pakistan Kashmir wrote to India, asking for military
following clashes with Indian troops. On 7 assistance.
November, Junagadh's court, facing
collapse, invited the Government of India to India required the signing of an Instrument
take over the State's administration. The of Accession and setting up an interim
Government of India agreed. government headed by Sheikh Abdullah in
return. The Maharaja complied, but Nehru
A plebiscite was conducted in February declared that it would have to be confirmed
1948, which went almost unanimously in by a plebiscite, although there was no legal
favour of accession to India. requirement to seek such confirmation.
Indian troops secured Jammu, Srinagar and
Kashmir conflict: Kashmir was also a the valley itself during the First Kashmir
problem. At the time of the transfer of War, but the intense fighting flagged with
power, Kashmir was ruled by Maharaja Hari the onset of winter, which made much of the
Singh, a Hindu, although the state itself had state impassable.
a Muslim majority. Hari Singh was equally
hesitant about acceding to either India or Prime Minister Nehru, recognizing the
Pakistan, as either would have provoked degree of international attention brought to
adverse reactions in parts of his kingdom. bear on the dispute, declared a ceasefire and
He signed a Standstill Agreement with sought UN arbitration, arguing that India
Pakistan and proposed one with India as would otherwise have to invade Pakistan
well, but announced that Kashmir intended itself, in view of its failure to stop the tribal
to remain independent. However, his rule incursions. The plebiscite was never held,
was opposed by Sheikh Abdullah, the and on 26 January 1950, the Constitution of
popular leader of Kashmir's largest political India came into force in Kashmir, but with
party, the National Conference, who special provisions made for the state. India
demanded his abdication. did not, however, secure administrative
control over all of Kashmir. The northern
Pakistan, attempting to force the issue of and western portions of Kashmir came under
Kashmir's accession, cut off supplies and Pakistan's control in 1947, and are today
transport links. The chaos in Punjab Pakistan-administered Kashmir. In the 1962
resulting from Partition had also severed Sino-Indian War, China occupied Aksai
transport links with India, meaning that Chin.
Kashmir's only links with the two dominions
was by air. Rumours about atrocities against Hyderabad Operation Polo: Sardar‘s
the Muslim population of Poonch by the greatest role in the integration of states was
Maharajah's forces caused the outbreak of his able handling of the Hyderabad crisis.
civil unrest. Shortly thereafter, Pathan Most of the states acceded to India,
tribesmen from the North-West Frontier Hyderabad was a landlocked state that
Province of Pakistan crossed the border and stretched over 82,000 square miles (over
entered Kashmir. The invaders made rapid 212,000 square kilometres) in southeastern
progress towards Srinagar. The Maharaja of India. While 87% of its 17 million people
were Hindu, its ruler Nizam Osman Ali

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Khan was a Muslim, and its politics were On 13 September, the Indian Army was sent
dominated by a Muslim elite. The Muslim into Hyderabad under Operation Polo on the
nobility and the Ittehad-ul-Muslimeen, a grounds that the law and order situation
powerful pro-Nizam Muslim party, insisted there threatened the peace of South India.
Hyderabad remain independent and stand on The troops met little resistance and between
an equal footing to India and Pakistan. 13 and 18 September took complete control
Accordingly, the Nizam in June 1947 issued of the state. The Nizam was retained as the
a firman announcing that on the transfer of head of state in the same manner as the other
power, his state would be resuming princes who acceded to [Link] thereupon
independence. The situation deteriorated disavowed the complaints that had been
further in 1948. The Razakars made to the UN and, despite vehement
("volunteers"), a militia affiliated to the protests from Pakistan and strong criticism
Ittehad-ul-Muslimeen and set up under the from other countries, the Security Council
influence of Muslim radical Qasim Razvi, did not deal further with the question, and
assumed the role of supporting the Muslim Hyderabad was absorbed into India.
ruling class against upsurges by the Hindu
populace, and began intensifying its Other States: Regarding the accession of
activities and was accused of attempting to the other states, Sardar acted like a magic-
intimidate villages. stick. In no time, he could merge the States
of Orissa, Chhatishgarh, Rajasthan, Punjab
The Hyderabad State Congress Party, and so on. He realized that the people of
affiliated to the Indian National Congress, states were supreme and by organizing the
launched a political agitation. Matters were States‘, people for establishment of popular
made worse by communist groups, which government, he could achieve success. He
had originally supported the Congress but had, with him, able workers and supporters
now switched sides and began attacking who had worked untiringly to bring such a
Congress groups. Attempts by Mountbatten merger in record time. There are
to find a negotiated solution failed and, in innumerable instances where Sardar could
August, the Nizam, claiming that he feared bring down the rulers of the States to terms
an imminent invasion, attempted to and agree them to accession to India as per
approach the UN Security Council and the the terms and conditions stipulated by the
International Court of Justice. Government of India. Sardar had to deal
with diversified Kings having different
India now insisted that if Hyderabad was attitude with caution and applying varied,
allowed to continue its independence, the human, social, political and psychological
prestige of the Government would be approach.
tarnished and then neither Hindus nor
Muslims would feel secure in its realm. The Formation of Linguistic
date for the attack was fixed as 13
September, even though General Sir Roy States:–
Bucher, the Indian chief of staff, had
objected on grounds that Hyderabad would Formation of Linguistic States:–
be an additional front for the Indian army
after Kashmir.

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India is a land of many languages, each with revoked the seal of approval that the
its distinct script, grammar, vocabulary and congress has once put on the principle of
literary tradition. In 1917, the Congress linguistic provinces.
Party had committed itself to the creation of
linguistic provinces in a Free India. After The demands for separate state on the
Congress's Nagpur Session in 1920, the linguistic basis didn't subside. There were
principle was extended and formalized with renewed movements aimed at linguistic
the creation of provincial Congress autonomy in 1948, 1949. There was the
Committee by linguistic zones. campaign for Samyukta Karnataka, uniting
Kannada speaking spread across the states of
The linguistic reorganization of the Madras, Mysore, Bombay, Hyderabad,
Congress was encouraged and supported by Samyukta Maharashtra, Maha Gujarat
Mahatma Gandhi. After the bitter partition movement. In case of Punjab, struggle
on the basis of religion the then PM Nehru brought together both the factors language
was apprehensive of dividing country and religion (Sikh).
further on the basis of language.
Andhra Movement
Dhar commission
After Independence, the speakers of Telugu
During that time some Marathi speaking asked the congress to implement its old
Congress members raised the pitches for resolution in favour of linguistic states.
separate Maharashtra State. Following this
demand, other language speaking people too On 19 October 1952, a popular freedom
demands a separate state for them. Hence, fighter, Potti Sriramulu undertook a fast
Constituent Assembly in 1948 appointed the unto death over the demand for a separate
Linguistic Provinces Commission, headed Andhra and expired after fifty-eight days.
by Justice S.K. Dhar, to enquire into the After his death people were agitated and it
desirability of linguistic provinces. was followed by rioting, demonstrations,
hartals and violence all over Andhra. The
The Dhar Commission advised against this Vishalandhra movement (as the movement
at that time reason being it might threaten for a separate Andhra was called) turned
national unity and also be administratively violent. Finally, the then PM, Nehru
inconvenient. announced the formation of a separate
Andhra State in December 1952.
JVP Committee
State Reorganization Commission
After some time the clamor for linguistic
states again got momentum. To appease the The formation of Andhra Pradesh spurred
vocal votaries of linguistic states, the the struggle for making of other states on
congress appoints a committee (JVP) in linguistic lines in other parts of the country.
December 1948 consisting of Nehru, Sardar
Patel and Pattabhi Sitaramayya to examine Hence Nehru appointed in August 1953 the
the question afresh. This JVP Committee states Reorganisation Commission (SRC)

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with justice Fazl Ali, K.M. Panikkar and merged with Punjab, which remained a
Hridaynath Kunzru as members, to examine trilingual state having three language
"objectively and dispassionately" the entire speakers-Punjab, Hindu and Pahari within
question of the reorganization of the states its border. In the Punjabi speaking part of
of the Union. The SRC submitted its report the state, there was a strong demand for
in October 1955. It recognized for the most carving out a separate Punjabi Suba (Punjabi
part on the linguistic principle and Speaking State). This demand got communal
recommended redrawing of state boundaries overtones. The Akali Dal led Sikh
on that basis. Communalists, while the Jan Sangh, led
Hindu communalists.
The then government accepted the SRC's
recommendations. Finally, the states SRC had rejected the demands in Punjab, as
Reorganization Act was passed by it would not solve either the language or the
parliament in November 1956. It provided communal problem of Punjab. Finally in
for fourteen states and six centrally 1966, Indira Gandhi agreed to the division
administered territories. SRC opposed the of Punjab into two Punjabi and Hindi
splitting of Bombay & Punjab. speaking status of Punjab and Haryana, with
the Pahari speaking district of Kangra and a
Case of Bombay port of the Hoshiarpur district being merged
with HP.
Therefore, the strongest reaction against
SRC's report came from Maharashtra, where Finally, after more than ten years of
widespread rioting took place. To fulfill continuous strife and popular struggles, the
their demand of separate Marathi speaking linguistic reorganization of India was largely
people's state, there was the broad based completed
Samyukta Maharashtra Samiti and on the
other hand in Bombay state, there was Maha Non Alignment
Gujarat Janata Parishad led the movement
for Gujarati people. Movement

After on years of the reorganization of states

Act, the government finally agreed in May
1960, the bifurcate the state of Bombay into One of the basic tenets of our foreign policy
Maharashtra, Gujarat with Bombay city has been non-alignment. As an element of
being included in Maharashtra and foreign policy non-alignment m e a n s i n d
Ahmedabad being made the capital of e p e n d e n t o f b l o c s , peaceful
Gujarat. coexistence, global peace, disarmament,
struggle against all manifestations of
Case of Punjab injustices like imperialism, colonialism,
apartheid etc.
The other state where an exception was
made to the linguistic principle was Punjab. After India's adoption of non-alignment as
In 1956, the state of PEPSU had been the core element of its foreign policy, it also
became a model for other newly

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independent countries. Most of them (before formal declaration of independence

adopted it as an instrument for independence of India) at the Conference on Regional
in international relations. Soon non- Cooperation among the Asian Countries
alignment, in addition to a significant known as Asian Relations Conference.
perspective of foreign policy, became a
movement of solidarity and cooperation The Asian Relation Conference thus can
among the newly liberated countries of Asia, truly be called the foundation stone for
Africa and Latin America. Non-Aligned NAM.
Movement (NAM) was thus founded as a
solidarity movement for giving voice to BANDUNG CONFERENCE
Third World Countries.
Along with Nehru some other leaders in the
Its essential purpose was to maintain world were also projecting these perceptions
equidistance in cold War rivalries and of newly independent countries. President
advocate principles for the promotion of Josip Broz Tito of Yugoslavia, President
world peace and cooperation. In due course Gamel Abdul Nasser of Egypt (then called
of time, NAM became the largest United Arab Republic), President Kwarne
membership movement as also the largest Nkrumah of Ghana and President Ahmed
peace movement in the history of humanity. Soekarno of Indonesia were prominent
In both, in its founding and later among these. Together with Nehru they
consolidation and development, India played evolved a coherent outlook and position on
a significant role. In fact, in many ways Non-Alignment.
India has been considered as a non-formal
leader of the NAM. These leaders were largely instrumental in
channelling the emerging changes towards
ORIGIN OF NAM AND INDIA'S ROLE the liberation of the people of the world and
towards evolving a new vision of the world
Though as a formal organised movement order. They rejected outright the notion that
NAM started with the holding of the East- West relations alone constituted
Belgrade Summit of Non- Aligned countries international affairs and asserted their own
in 1961, its seeds were sown by India, role in shaping these affairs. On the
particularly by Jawaharlal Nehru even initiative of these leaders the conference of
before attainment of India's independence. It Afro-Asian Nations was held in Bandung
is quite clear that Nehru was articulating the (Indonesia) in April 1955.
ideas of decolonisation, national
independence, non-bloc politics, peaceful The participants from 23 Asian and 6
coexistence, eradication of racialism and the African States represented mainly the people
need for the developing countries to play an of young States which had been setup as a
active role in international affairs. It was at result of the new balance of forces of
the initiative of Jawaharlal Nehru that India democracy and freedom on the one hand and
became the venue of the first forum of the of colonialism and oppression on the others.
liberated nations, when representatives of 28 The states participating in the conference did
countries met in New Delhi in March 1947 not belong to any military or political blocs,

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arid they had taken clear and definite Within three years, eighteen countries had
positions the problems facing mankind. endorsed the Panchsheel principles in joint
Despite their different perspectives, the communiqués with Indian leaders. These
countries represented at the Bandung principles were practically incorporated in
Conference arrived at a common position in the Ten Principles declared at Bandung. In
the larger interest of world peace. One of the addition during its initial years of
most important achievements of the independence itself, India played a very
Bandung Conference was the Declaration on active role in peaceful resolution of some
World Peace and Cooperation. This complex international issues and persistently
declaration embodied the principles of lobbied in United Nations for disarmament.
Panchsheel which were first stated in the
Preamble to the agreement between India All these made the idea of non-alignment,
and China in April 1954. the initial basic tenet in India's foreign
policy, a mechanism providing link between
INDIA’S PIVOTAL ROLE AT NAM the coordinated actions of the anti-
imperialist and anti-colonial forces, as an
It is quite clear that in the founding of NAM assertion of independence in foreign affairs,
India not only played an active role as one as a process of weakening of power blocs, as
of the founders but in many ways it was the a symbol of defiance against big power
initiator of the Movement. As we have domination and as a diplomatic innovation
already seen non-alignment as a concept of in the phase of politics of confrontation and
global politics, as a foreign policy premise cold war.
and as a perspective of maximising national
interest of the newly liberated countries was Over decades of its existence the NAM has
a vision Indian national leadership had been developing a comprehensive political
developed during its freedom struggle itself. philosophy, a programme of action, and a
new and positive system of international
The vision became the core element of economic and political relations. From its
India's foreign policy after independence founding India has remained one of the most
rand of other countries which attained active members of NAM and has played a
independence from that period onwards. pivotal role in its various activities and
developments.
The non-aligned movement, thus, emerged
from India's initiative for formulating an Liberation War of
independent foreign policy. This
independent foreign policy was based on a Bangladesh
solid moral and sound political foundation.
It was a non-partisan foreign policy. India's
moral approach to international politics was
further projected through the Panchsheel in The Liberation War of Bangladesh in 1971
1954. was the culmination of a 25-year tumultuous
relationship between East and West
Pakistan. The British failed to keep a united
India as riots started between the Hindus,

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Sikhs and Muslims in 1946. The riots were Provincial Elections–1954

so widespread that on August 14, 1947 India
was portioned into two separate states. The first provincial elections were held in
East Pakistan in 1954. In this election,
Thus partition of the Indian subcontinent in Suhrawardy‘s newly organized Awami
1947 divided British India into two League (Peoples‘ League) allied with Fazlul
independent countries of India and Pakistan. Huq‘s Peasants‘ and Workers‘ Party and a
Pakistan was composed of two wings–East coalition of other Bangladeshi-dominated
and West Pakistan. The two wings were parties to form the United Front. In this
united emotionally, but the marriage of the election, the people of East Pakistan voted
two wings was artificial as they had little in unilaterally for the alliance. As a result, the
common other than religion. Their speech, United Front had the maximum number of
thought, food habits, dress, living and seats. Nurul Amin‘s Muslim League, the
generally speaking, their respective way of dominant party in West Pakistan, won just
life, were totally different. 10 seats in East Pakistan; and thus, the
Urdu-speaking people in East Pakistan‘s
These differences, in course of time, gave ability to dictate policy was essentially
rise to a tumultuous relationship that failed finished. Fazlul Huq also became the chief
to keep the two wings united. The flawed minister of East Pakistan. The fine showing
relationship ended in a brutal war in 1971. of the United Front convinced the
As such, it is imperative to learn the politicians, civil servants, and the military at
background of the Liberation War of the center that they had to constrain
Bangladesh in 1971. Bangladeshi nationalism.

Causes of War Ayub Khan’s Declaration of Martial

Law–1958
Language Movement–1952
In 1957 and 1958 governments rose and fell
Bangladeshis had one language and were in Dhaka as the result of both instability in
proud of their ancestry; their language and the assembly alignments and of intervention
literature were older than Urdu, the national by the central government.43 As a sequel to
language of West Pakistan, used by the uncertainty, the deputy speaker of the
minority. Yet Mohammad Ali Jinnah stated house was killed in a riot. In such a
in a public speech in March 1948 that Urdu dilapidated condition, president Mirza
would remain the state language of Pakistan. abrogated the constitution and declared
This infuriated all the non-Urdu speaking martial law. General Ayub Khan remained
people of East Pakistan. On February 21, as the chief martial law administrator. In
1952, students and other civilians came out 1962 Ayub Khan promulgated the new
in the streets in protest but the police constitution of Pakistan, primarily giving
cracked down on the unarmed civilians. For enormous power to the president.
East Pakistan, the language movement was Unfortunately, nothing addressed the
the first stepping stone to independence. concerns of East Bengal; and as such, anger,

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resentment and Bengali nationalism  Firstly, the Indo–Pakistan War in

continued to grow. 1965 over Kashmir was one of the
tipping points in this regard. India
Awami League’s Six-Point Program–1966 spent a huge amount of money to
keep armed forces at a constant state
Before the resignation of Ayub Khan, of readiness along the border of her
several events took place in the political hostile neighbor. A warm
spectrum. Among those, the Awami relationship with an independent
League‘s Six-Point Program was viewed as Bangladesh would reduce this big
a foundational document in Bangladesh‘s expenditure.
struggle for independence. This was not an  Secondly, India also wanted to start
instant memorandum developed within a trading with East Pakistan for mutual
short time. Rather, it was an outcome of benefit. But due to several political
Bangladeshi grievances accumulated for a deadlocks, it was not a foregone
long time. The initiation of the Six-Point conclusion.
Program started as a sequel to several  Thirdly, Pakistani rulers created a
events. However, the election of 1965 problem for India by training and
played an important role in formulating the militarily equipping the Naga rebels
program of Assam (northeastern part of
India), who claimed a portion of
National Election–1970 India to establish an independent
Nagaland.
As Yahya Khan received the Six-Point  Apart from these issues, millions of
Program from the Awami League, he opined East Pakistanis had religious,
that he was not in a position to implement cultural, and linguistic ties with
them. He reiterated his prime task was to India. West Pakistani rulers also
hold a general election in 1970 and hand demeaned the Hindus of East
over power at that point. However, in the Pakistan; whereas India was a
December 1970 elections, the Awami Hindu-dominated country.
League won 160 of 162 seats from East
Pakistan. Bhutto‘s Pakistan Peoples‘ Party For all these reasons and more, India
was successful in the west, winning 81 of 83 preferred an independent Bangladesh as a
seats. Yahya Khan opened talks with both tonic to all these problems. The Indian
the leaders but failed to reach a consensus, government expected that if Bangladesh
and thus failed to hand over the power to an became independent, it would cooperate
elected government. with India in a much wider form.

India’s Perspective Course of War

There is no doubt that the creation of an On March 25, 1971, Yahya Khan, Bhutto
independent Bangladesh was in India‘s and other members left for West Pakistan
interest for many reasons. without giving any message or warning to
the Awami League leaders. The West

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Pakistani military launched its sudden attack time the naval task force was close to
on March 25, 1917 at 11 [Link] used Chittagong port of East Pakistan, all
automatic rifles, automatic weapons, Pakistani forces surrendered
bayonets and tanks. Yahya Khan appointed unconditionally. If the UN espoused cease
General Tikka Khan as the overall fire would be in effect, Bangladeshis‘ hope
commander, and he was given 48 hours to for independence was not to be materialized.
suppress Bangladeshi nationalist movement.
Within 34 hours, approximately 10,000
unarmed civilians were killed.

Until November 21, 1971, mostly

Bangladeshi regular forces along with the
Mukti Bahini operated in different parts of
the country. Besides, there were few naval
and air assets utilized to complement the
war effort. However, on November 21, 1971
all the forces–Bangladesh Army, Navy, Air
Force as well as the Mukti Bahini–launched
their joint offensive against Pakistani
military.

Pakistan launched the war against India on

December 3, 1971, the UN took a more
vigorous approach to the problem. While
Soviet Union was supporting India, the U.S.
and Chine stood by Pakistan. On December
5, 1971 Moscow vetoed a U.S. resolution
urging the Security Council to call upon
India and Pakistan to carry out a cease fire
and military withdrawal.

The Russians exercised another veto within

24 hours when on December 7, 1971, the
General Assembly voted 104 against 11 to
call upon India and Pakistan to cease fire
immediately and withdraw their forces to
respective territories.

While the UN was debating, the war on the

ground was going in favor of India. In the
meantime, U.S. dispatched a naval task
forces led by the nuclear-powered carrier
Enterprise from U.S. seventh fleet. By the

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