Practical Research: Planning and Design
Twelfth Edition, Global Edition
Chapter 1
The Nature and Tools of
Research
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Research is (1 of 2)
• NOT merely:
– gathering information.
– rummaging around for hard-to-locate information.
– transporting facts from one location to another.
• “Research” is a word that is used loosely in everyday
conversation and therefore must be defined clearly for
professional use.
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Research is (2 of 2)
• A systematic process of
– Collecting
– Analyzing
– Interpreting information (data)
• Goal: increase our understanding of a phenomenon
about which we are interested or concerned
• Our focus is on formal research, or research intended to
be communicated to a scientific community
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Research is a Cyclical Process
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Iterative Steps
• Identify a question or problem (unanswered question)
• Articulate a goal
• Divide the principal problem into more manageable
subproblems
• Identify hypotheses and assumptions
• Develop a specific plan
• Collect, organize, and analyze data
• Interpret the data as they relate to the problem
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Assumption
• An assumption is: Condition that is taken for granted.
• Two general assumptions that underlie most research
projects:
– The phenomenon under investigation is somewhat
lawful and predictable.
– Cause-and-effect relationships can account for certain
patterns observed in the phenomenon.
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Hypothesis (1 of 2)
• A hypothesis is:
– A logical supposition
– A reasonable guess
– An educated conjecture
• Provides a tentative explanation for a phenomenon under
investigation
• May direct thinking to possible sources of information
necessary to resolve the research problem and its
subproblems
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Hypothesis (2 of 2)
• Hypotheses are not unique to research. Just imagine any
time you’ve made a “guess” about the cause of some
phenomenon.
• Hypotheses that are proposed prior to any data collection
are called a priori hypotheses.
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Types of Research
• Quantitative Research
– Involves looking at amounts, or quantities, of one or more
variables of interest
• Qualitative Research
– Involves looking at characteristics, or qualities, that cannot
be entirely reduced to numerical values
• Mixed Method Research
– Uses a combination of quantitative and qualitative
methods
• Action Research
– Focused on outcomes for the practitioner
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Philosophical Orientations Toward
Research (1 of 3)
• Positivism
– with appropriate measurement tools, scientists can
objectively uncover absolute, undeniable truths about
cause-and-effect relationships within the physical
world and human experience.
• Postpositivism
– true objectivity in seeking absolute truths can be an
elusive goal and researchers bring biases to their
work.
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Philosophical Orientations Toward
Research (2 of 3)
• Constructivism
– no absolute truth — the “realities” researchers identify
are simply human-created perceptions and
interpretations.
• Phenomenology
– focus is entirely on how human beings experience
themselves and their world as they go through life.
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Philosophical Orientations Toward
Research (3 of 3)
• Pragmatism/realism
– absolute truths may actually exist—even if they are
exceedingly difficult to discover.
– human beings’ self-constructed beliefs about
phenomena are legitimate objects of study in their
own right.
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Tools of Research
• Specific mechanisms or strategies used to collect,
manipulate, or interpret data
– The library and its resources
– Computer technology
– Measurement
– Statistics
– Language
– The human mind
• Methodology dictates the tools the researcher selects
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Library and its Resources
• Access to books, microforms, CDs, DVDs, online
databases
• Fast and efficient means of locating and accessing
information
• Access to library holdings around the world
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Computer Technology is Used for
• Generating and organizing ideas
• Scheduling, structuring, and coordinating projects
• Finding literature
• Networking with others
• Storing and analyzing data
• Writing, editing, formatting
• Producing graphics
• Presenting results
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Measurement
• Usually used in quantitative research
• More difficult for qualitative research
• Common instruments
– Scales
– Rulers
– Stopwatches
• Specialized instruments
– Telescope
– MRI
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Main Functions of Statistics
• Describe the data
– Descriptive statistics summarize the general nature of
the data obtained
• Draw inferences from the data
– Inferential statistics help the researcher make
decisions about the data
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Language as a Tool
• Allows us to communicate and think more effectively
– reduces complexity of the world
– allows abstraction of the environment
– enhances the power of thought
– facilitates generalizations and drawing inferences
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Communicating Effectively through
Writing (1 of 2)
• Be specific and precise: Say exactly what you mean
• Keep your primary objective in mind at all times
• Provide an overview of what you will be discussing
• Organize ideas into categories by using headings and
subheadings
• Use concrete examples to make abstract ideas more
understandable
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Communicating Effectively through
Writing (2 of 2)
• Use figures and tables
• Regularly summarize what you’ve said
• Anticipate having to write multiple drafts
• Check your final draft
– Grammar
– Punctuation
– Spelling
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Using the Tools in Word-Processing
Software (1 of 2)
• Beyond the basic tools of word-processing software, the
following are also quite helpful:
– Outlining
– Setting headers and footers
– Creating tables
– Inserting graphics
– Creating footnotes
– Using international alphabets and characters
– Tracking changes
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Using the Tools in Word-Processing
Software (2 of 2)
• General recommendations for using a word-processor
effectively:
– Save and backup your document frequently.
– Use spell checker and grammar checker but don’t rely
on them exclusively
– Print out a paper copy for final proofreading and
editing
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The Human Mind (1 of 5)
• The most important tool in the researcher’s toolbox
• Used for critical thinking
• Evaluates
– Accuracy
– credibility
– worth of information
– lines of reasoning
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The Human Mind (2 of 5)
• Evaluation may take a variety of forms:
– verbal reasoning
– argument analysis
– probabilistic reasoning
– decision making
– hypothesis testing
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The Human Mind (3 of 5)
• Deductive logic
– Begins with one or more premises, statements or
assumptions that the researcher initially takes to be
true
– Valuable for generating research hypotheses and
testing theories
• Inductive reasoning
– Begins with an observation (sample)
– Observation then used to draw conclusions about
entire classes of objects or events (population)
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The Human Mind (4 of 5)
• Scientific method
– Process of collecting & analyzing data systematically
– Involves thinking actively and intentionally
– Yields hypotheses
• Theory Building
– An organized body of concepts and principles
– Intended to explain a particular phenomenon
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The Human Mind (5 of 5)
• Collaboration with other minds
– Increases variety of
▪ Perspectives
▪ Backgrounds
▪ Areas of expertise
– May reduce bias
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Exploring Research in Your Field
• Juried (or refereed) research report
– Judged by experts in the field and deemed to be of
sufficient quality and importance to warrant
publication.
• Nonjuried (or nonrefereed) report
– Appears in a journal or on the Internet without having
been reviewed or selected by experts.
– Some nonjuried reports are excellent, but others may
not be.
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