Introduction

In the first part of this project, I shall explain in detail about the life of the father of our
nation Mahatma Gandhi. His contributions to the independence of our country are immense. I
shall explain about his youth life where he stayed, and the challenges he faced. Also about
how he joined in on the struggle for independence in India and his contribution to our nation's
independence.

In the next part, I shall elaborate on the United Nations. I shall discuss in detail the formation
of the United Nations and elaborate on various bodies of the UN and their roles and functions
and their significance. Also, I shall discuss about the organs of the UN and how they
coordinate and keep the UN functioning.

In the next part of the project, I shall discuss regarding the Indian high courts, its member,
their qualifications, its jurisdictions, power, and various other aspects. I shall also elaborate
on the lok adalat and its significance and functioning.
Mahatma Gandhi and the National Movement

Mahatma Gandhi’s Early Life

Birth and Youth

Mahatma Gandhi was born on 2nd October, 1869 in Porbandar to a Hindu family primarily
practicing Vaishnavism. His father Karmchand Uttamchand Gandhi was the Dewan of
Porbandar and later Dewan of Rajkot and his mother Putlibai Gandhi was a very religious
woman who practiced Vaishnavism with a tinge of Jainism and spent her life divided among
temple and home and also regularly fasted. He went to a rudimentary primary school in
Porbandar. One of the terminal reports rated him as “good at English, fair in Arithmetic and
weak in Geography; conduct very good, bad handwriting.” Then at the young age of 13 years,
he was married to Kasturbai Gokuldas Kapadia (14 years) which gave his education a one-
year gap. Gandhi’s father died in 1885. When he was 16 years old his first baby died only a
few days after birth this depressed Gandhi. In November 1887 Gandhi 18 years old,
graduated from high school in Ahmedabad. In January 1888, he enrolled at Samaldas
College in Bhavnagar State the only degree-granting institution of higher education in the
region. However, he dropped out and returned to his family in Porbandar. At the age of 19,
Gandhi wanted to leave home to study law in London and aimed to become a barrister. But
he faced many obstacles before his departure there was not enough money for his travel.
Also, his mother was reluctant to expose her youngest child to unknown temptations and
dangers in a distant land. But Gandhi promised his mother never to touch any wine, woman,
or meat and only devote his time to his studies in England. The head of his caste forbade his
travel as it went against his religion. But however not hearing any of these he sailed to
England and was therefore thrown out of his caste.

Life in England

Gandhi sailed to London in September 1888. Ten days after his arrival, he joined Inns of
Court School of Law in the Inner Temple, one of the four London law colleges. In his three
years in England, he tried to brush up on his English and Latin by taking the University of
London matriculation examination. He also took dance classes to adapt to life in England. He
faced many problems in England mainly adapting himself to Western food, dress, and
etiquette, he felt awkward. During his stay in England, he found the best vegetarian restaurant
in London. He also found his way to the Vegetarian Society of London. He also
was introduced to the Bible and reading of the English translation of the Bhagwat Gita. In
June of 1891, he got his law degree and returned to India. Upon returning to India he found
out that his mother had died. He set up a law practice in Bombay but did not get the success
or recognition he wanted to receive. In the very first he argued in a court in Bombay he cut a
sorry figure. He was turned down even for a part-time job as a teacher in a Bombay high
school, he returned to Rajkot to make a modest living by drafting petitions for litigants. Even
that employment was closed to him. He soon accepted a position with an Indian firm of his
distant cousin that sent him to its office in Natal, South Africa then a part of the British
Empire. Along with his wife, and children, Gandhi remained in South Africa for nearly 20
years.

Life in South Africa

Upon Gandhi’s arrival in Natal, he was quickly exposed to the racial discrimination practiced
in South Africa. In a Durban court, he was rudely told by the European magistrate to take off
his turban but he refused to as it was his culture and left the courtroom seeing the
discrimination. A few days later, while traveling to Pretoria, he was unceremoniously thrown
out of a first-class railway compartment even though he had a valid ticket and left shivering
and brooding at the rail station in Pietermaritzburg. One more was that he was beaten up by a
European driver of a stagecoach because he would not travel on the footboard to make room
for a European passenger. He was barred from hotels reserved “for Europeans
only.” and finally he was kicked into a gutter for daring to walk near a house. In Pretoria,
Gandhi studied the conditions in which his fellow South Asians in South Africa lived and
tried to educate them on their rights and duties, but he had no intention of staying in South
Africa. In June 1894, as his contract was about to end, he went to Durban, ready to sail for
India. At his farewell party, he glanced through the Natal Mercury and learned that the Natal
Legislative Assembly was considering a bill to deprive Indians of the right to vote. After
reading that he told his fellow mates “This is the first nail in our coffin,” He drafted petitions
signed by hundreds of his compatriots to the Natal legislature and the British government. He
consulted Joseph Chamberlain and asked him to withdraw the act but he could not prevent
the passage of the bill. In 1894 he founded the Natal Indian Congress and also became its
secretary. By this, he meant to convey the grievances to the government. In the South African
or the Boer War in 1899, Gandhi said that all those who claimed citizenship of the British
Empire should fight for its defense. Hence he raised an ambulance corps of 1,100 volunteers,
out of whom 300 were free Indians and the rest indentured laborers, barristers, accountants,
and artisans. They were all medically trained and certified. They would carry wounded
soldiers for miles to a field hospital because the terrain was too rough for the ambulances.
Gandhi and 37 others were awarded the Queen’s South Africa Medal.

Activism in South Africa

In 1906 the Transvaal government published a particularly humiliating ordinance for the
registration of its Indian population. Under Gandhi’s leadership Indians in South Africa
protested at Johannesburg in September 1906 and took a pledge to defy the ordinance. The
idea of Satyagraha was born and implemented by Gandhi first here. The struggle continued in
South Africa for several years and many Indians sacrificed their lives but did not want to
submit to the ordinance. Finally, the British government came to a negotiation with the
people. After this Gandhi learnt about the freedom struggle in India and departed South
Africa in July of 1914.

Joining the Struggle for Independence in India

Gandhi left South Africa in July 1914 just at the break of the First World War and with his
family moved to London and stayed there till December. Then aged 45 years Gandhi came
back to Bombay in January 1915. Gandhi found out about the struggle for independence in
India and in 1920 he took the leadership of the Indian National Congress and decided that he
would give India independence.

Gandhi’s Contribution to India’s Independence

Champaran Satyagraha
The people in Champaran had been forced to grow Indigo and sell it to the British at fixed
prices. The people were very unhappy since indigo was a very demanding crop as they
drained the land’s fertility. Also, the British were not paying them enough. Gandhi held a
Satyagraha with the people. This was Gandhi’s first victory in India as the British came to a
negotiation.

Kheda Satyagraha

The British government increased the tax to 23% and the loom workers were very unhappy as
the place was recently hit by a drastic famine. Gandhi along with Sardar
Vallabhai Patel encouraged the people to sign a petition. They also performed the Kheda
Satyagraha and the government came to an agreement with the people and relaxed the
conditions in the place.

Khilafat Movement

It was an Islamic movement that arose in India in 1919 to safeguard the Ottoman Empire and
the Caliphate. The Islamic community looked up to the Caliph as the leader of the Islamic
community on the whole. But following the Italian (1911) and Balkan invasions (1912-
13) the caliphate was weakened immensely and after the First World War the Caliphate fell,
to safeguard the caliphate two brothers Shaukat Ali and Mohammad Ali launched the
Khilafat movement. Gandhi Ji found a way to unite the Hindus and Muslims in the struggle
for independence and declared his support for the Khilafat movement. This brought about
Hindu-Muslim unity for fighting for the independence of our nation as well as the support of
the Muslim community for the non-cooperation movement going on at that time. However,
the movement was disbanded after the fall of the Ottoman Empire.

Non Co-operation Movement

The British government passed the Rowlatt Act was passed and it gave the British the right to
arrest, trial, or search anyone without any warrant. This infuriated the Indians as well as
Gandhi and at the same time he launched the Non-Cooperation movement also known as the
Civil Disobedience movement. The British were ruthless and opened fire on a group of
people performing Satyagraha in Delhi. But the main spark that led to the non-cooperation
movement was the Jallianwalla Bagh Massacre on April 13, 1919. An unarmed crowd was
peacefully protesting in Jallianwalla Bagh but Reginald Dyer came with his troops and
ordered the troops to keep shooting until they had no more ammunition. Men, women, and
children were killed and Gandhi asked all the Indians to boycott all foreign goods. He started
this movement with mainly two intentions. The first was to boycott British goods and to show
the British that the Indians could survive without them and secondly to promote the Indian
cottage industry which was on the verge of collapsing. It gave rise to Khadi cloths being spun
and worn by Indians. Gandhi Ji also told Indians to burn all the British goods that they had on
a Hindu festival. Not only goods but Gandhi ji endorsed people to give up the British titles.
After Gandhi Ji’s urge to do so, Rabindranath Tagore gave up his “Knight” title. This shows
Gandhi ji’s great planning to give us freedom. But in Chaura Chauri in Uttar Pradesh, an
angry mob burnt down a police station and murdered two British police officers. This went
against Gandhi’s principles of Ahimsa hence he called of the Non-Cooperation movement in
February 1922.

Salt Satyagraha (Dandi March)

The Indian National Congress demanded complete independence or swaraj. But the British
government refused to do so but the Indian flag was unfurled on
January 30 1930 and declared it as Purna Swaraj Day. At the same time, the British
introduced the Salt law which compelled Indians from buying salt from the British at a very
high tax rate. Gandhi ji wanted to show the British how their law was really illogical and
launched the Salt or the Dandi march intending to break the law by making salt himself. He
organized the march from Sabarmati Ashram near Ahmedabad to Dandi Gujrat. It involved
78 volunteers marching 388km from the 12th of March to the 6th of April. Gandhi and his
followers upon reaching the sea shore took handfuls of salt from the shore thus breaking the
law. Even though the British charged at them all the followers kept quiet and did not raise
their hand. Many were arrested and imprisoned. Gandhi ji continued this salt Satyagraha for
the next two months and encouraged the people to also follow. This was Gandhi Ji’s most
successful protest.

Aftermath of the Dandi March

Following the huge success of the Dandi march, Gandhi ji was called by Lord Irwin the
representative of the government and the king of England to make negotiations. In March of
1931, the Gandhi – Irwin Pat was signed according to which the British would release all the
Indian prisoners and that Gandhi could represent the Indian National Congress in the round
table meetings if Gandhi would dismiss the civil disobedience.

Round Table Conferences

In the first Round Table Conference held from 12 November 1930 to 19 January 1931,
Gandhi ji sought to bring about constitutional reforms as the beginning of the end of the
British Rule in India but the British had a radicalistic approach and wanted India to stay in
the British dominion and would make constitutional amendments in their own constitution.
Also, the British Government questioned Gandhi’s eligibility to be a representative of the
whole of India and asked a representative of every religion and caste to come for the next
round table conference. However, Gandhi thought that this would pull the people much
more apart and did not like that idea. The second Round Table Conference was held from 7

September 1931 to 1 December 1931, but unlike in the first one the second Round Table
discussion Gandhi was very disappointed because the government still had a very radical
approach. But in the Third Round Table Conference, Gandhi Ji along with the delegates of
the Indian National Congress compelled the British government to pass the Government of
India.

World War II

World War II broke out and the British wanted to recruit Indians to fight for them. Gandhi Ji
was strictly against this and said that no Indian would fight for the British in World War II.
He did this as Indians were fighting for democracy and freedom but it was not granted to
them but ironically British wanted them to fight for freedom in WW II. This was also to
shape India’s character as a diplomat. This worked out and many Indians revolted and did not
join or quit the British army. This was a great plan by Gandhi Ji and also gave a massive
blow to the British since at the time of World War II the British were in a shortage of troops.

Quit India Movement

Gandhi was now determined to bring India independence and to make the British leave
India and launched the Quit India movement in 1942. According to this, he asked the British
to quit India. He urged the people to disobey all the government’s commands but to abjure
from violence. This was a massive success and the British were hinting of a bidding due from
India. But unlike Gandhi’s ideas, the Muslim League demanded the British Divide and Quit
India, but Gandhi did not want a divided India. However, the viceroy consulted both Gandhi
and Muhamad Ali Jinnah (leader of the Muslim League) and divided India and Pakistan.

Independence

Just before independence, many key figures in the Congress quit, but with the leadership of
Gandhi, the Congress stood firm on their demands. Gandhi put forth his demands for the
British to quit India strictly. Finally, the British gave up and granted India independence.
India was born at midnight on the 15th of August, 1947 and the Gandhi’s dream of an
independent India came true.

Conclusion

Mahatma Gandhi’s contribution to the independence of our country is immense. He is a great

figure and has inspired many people like Dalai Lama, Nelson Mandela, and many others. He
is truly a great soul that is why he is Mahatma.
United Nations

Introduction

The United Nations is an international peace and non-profit organization that works to keep
peace and harmony and aims to resolve various issues in this world. We shall
discuss about its formation, its various bodies and organs their function and objectives, and
how they have been working tirelessly for the good of humanity and to maintain universal
peace.

Reasons for its Formation

The horrific state of the world and the intense human suffering after the First World War led
to the formation of the League of Nations by the Treaty of Versailles which was signed in
1919 by the allied forces (USA UK France) and Germany. It was supposed to be a peace
document serving as an international body to discuss various matters of diplomacy. However,
it was ineffective as it could not aid economically to any country or could prevent wars. It
could not prevent Japan’s invasion of Northern China (Manchuria) or could prevent the
Italian kingdom’s invasion of Ethiopia. It could not prevent the Second World War as well.
Hence it was dissolved by 1942 following the commencement of the Second World War.
World War II witnessed one of the darkest periods of human history. It witnessed intense
human suffering, loss of life, destruction of property, separated loved ones, and
a huge economic depression followed. With the devastating nuclear bombs dropped on
Hiroshima and Nagasaki. During WWII the allies – USA, UK, China, and the Soviet Union
signed the Declaration of the United Nations on 1st January 1942 and the following
day it was signed by 22 other countries. By the next year 21 more countries had joined the
council. On 26th June 1945, the Charter of the United Nations was signed by 50 countries.
The UN came into existence on 26th October 1945 after the end of WWII in May 1945.

Various Bodies of the UN

1) Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO)

The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) is a specialized agency of the UN that leads
international efforts to defeat hunger. After WWII there emerged a shortage of food supply in
the world. After the formation of the UN, FAO came into existence on 16th October 1945 in
Quebec with its headquarters in Washington. Its present headquarters are in Rome has 194
countries and the European Union.

Objectives

 FAO’s main objective is to eliminate world hunger and malnutrition.

 It coordinates the efforts of governments and technical agencies for the development
of agriculture, fisheries, forestry, and water and land resources by sustainable and
evidence-based methods.
 It also carries out research; provides technical assistance on projects in
individual countries; operates educational programs through seminars and
training centers; and maintains information and support services, including keeping
 statistics on world production of agricultural products, their trade internationally and
locally, and consumption.
 It helps farmers to develop better ways of farming by giving them efficient tools,
fertilizers, and better methods of farming.
 It also helps countries to combat famines by releasing stored food materials to them.

2) International Fund for Agricultural Development

The IFAD was formed on 15th December 1977 as an outcome of the World Food
Conference in 1974. Its headquarters are located in Rome, Italy. The IFAD is an actively
operating agency of the UN. IFAD has 178 Member States from all regions of the
world. More than 100 of its members voluntarily contribute to the agency.

Objectives

 It is with a mission to address poverty and hunger in developing countries.

 The IFAD aims to improve land and water conditions, develop rural infrastructure,
improve market accessibility, to fight against changes in climatic conditions in rural
areas.
 It also aims to provide food security and improve living conditions in rural areas of
developing countries.
 The IFAD has provided $23.2 billion in loans and grants for rural development in
third-world countries. To make poor rural people have a high productive capacity.

3) International Labour Organization

The ILO was created in 1919, as part of the Treaty of Versailles that ended following the end
of the First World War, it later joined the UN and became one of its oldest bodies. The ILO
celebrated its 100th anniversary in 2019.

Objectives

 The ILO’s main objective is to resolve social and labor challenges by developing a set
of policies and programs that satisfy the demands of the laborers and such that it is
also ethical.
 The most important objective is to safeguard the civil rights of workers. It has
prepared international labor standards and has framed conventions and
recommendations which can be seen in the constitution of the ILO.
 It helps its member states in resolving issues related to labor by providing them with
advice. It performs research on market and employment issues, including
investigation and publishing of various member states, and provides them with
solutions for the betterment of their country's worker conditions.

4) International Monetary Fund

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) works hard to achieve growth and prosperity for all
of its member countries. Its headquarters are located in Washington DC The IMF is governed
and accountable to all of its member countries. It does so by supporting or creating economic
policies that promote economic stability and monetary cooperation, which are essential to
improve the productivity of its member’s economy and share markets, job creation, and
complete financial well-being. It has 190 member countries.

OBJECTIVES

 It aims to further improve international monetary cooperation by powering the

expansion of trade thus making the economy flourish.
 Its core objective is monitoring the financial policies of its members and giving them
timely policies and advice this is known as surveillance.
 Also, it provides technical assistance and training known as capacity
development. This accounts for about one-third of the IMF’s annual spending. It is
given to all countries in times of need.
 It can help countries strengthen their economies and other taxation of financial
policies.
 The IMF shares its knowledge and research with government institutions such as
finance ministries and central banks.

5) International Telecommunication Union

ITU is one of the UN’s specialized agencies. It is the oldest agency (158 years old) in the
UN formerly known as the International Telegraph Union in 1865 but later joined the UN on
1st January 1949. It has 193 Member States and more than 1000 companies, universities, and
international organizations affiliated with it. Its headquarters are located in Geneva,
Switzerland.

Objectives

 Its main objective is to enable the development of telecommunication and ICT

networks.
 Research and publish new inventions and advancements in the field of
telecommunication.
 To coordinate with its member states about the use of telecommunication for their
own good.
 To help its poor member states to develop their telecommunication situation. It has
prepared the Agenda 2030 and the Sustainable Development
Goals which are to develop communication.

1) United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)

The UNESCO is a specialized agency of the UN. It has 194 member states as well as partners
in the non-governmental, intergovernmental, and private sectors. Its headquarters are
in Paris, France. UNESCO has 53 regional field offices and 199 national commissions. It was
formed after the League of Nations fell and since then has been devoted to promoting peace
and protection of historic sites in different regions of the world.

Objectives
  Its most important objective is to promote
education, build peace, eradicate poverty,
and improve access to quality education
for everyone, it believes that
education is right for everyone. It also
aims to improve the adult literacy rate in
third-world countries
 It makes policies that tend to improve
human rights and cultures. It also puts
effort into tackling climate change.
 It also protects natural and historical sites
by designating them as a World Heritage
Site.
 It tries to combat global challenges such as
access to food, health, and communication
technologies. Through the basic
understanding of nature.
7) United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO)

UNIDO is a specialized agency of the United Nations. It was formed on 17th November
1966. Its headquarters are located in Vienna, Switzerland. It has 172 member states

Objectives

 It aims to promote and accelerate industrial development in its member states.

 Its vision is to make the world free from poverty with industries having low-emission
thus improving living standards for all, and ensuring a sustainable development of the
environment alongside the industries.
 It provides technical action-oriented support and frames and advices policies related
to industries.
  Frames standards relating to industrial activities that aim to prevent the degradation of
climate by using renewable energy resources and energy efficiency machinery to
reduce industrial emissions and to ensure that scarce resources are preserved.

8) World Bank

The World Bank was formed on 4th July 1944. Its headquarters are located in
Washington DC, USA. It has 189 member states. It aims to provide economic support to its
member states to make them prosper.

Objectives

 It has a vision to create a world free of poverty.

 It aims for overall growth in all sectors by creating jobs.
 Till now it has provided up to $45.9 billion in financial assistance to its member
states.
 To encourage underdeveloped countries to conduct international trade and balance
their payments. To provide guarantees against loans granted to large and small and
other projects for its member nations.

9) World Health Organization (WHO)

The WHO is a health-specialized agency of the UN formed on 7th April 1948. Its
headquarters are located in Geneva, Switzerland. It plays a very important role in the field of
health and hygiene. It is looked upon by many as the standard health organization in the
world.

Objectives

 Its main objective is to keep the world safe from the threat of epidemics and to serve
its members in times of need.
 Ensuring that everyone has access to health services with better health and ensure
their well-being.
 Performing research on various sectors of health and providing its reports to its
member states.
 In case of a global outbreak of disease the WHO aims to help regulate policies to
prevent its spread, it researches and tries to find vaccines or medicines against it and
ensure delivery of such items.

10) World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO)

The WIPO was formed on 14th July 1967. Its headquarters are located in Geneva,
Switzerland, and has 193 member states. Intellectual property (IP) refer to patents,
trademarks, copyrights, etc. It has many other regional offices and aims to provide suitable
advice relating to various intellectual properties like trademarks, patents, and copyrights to
various member states.

Objectives
  Its main objective is to ensure a balanced development and effective international IP
(intellectual property) system and standard policies that enables innovations and
inventions for the benefit of the world as a whole.
 It helps its member states to realize and use the benefits of IP for the good
of mankind.
 It puts in effort to protect IP across borders and to resolve disputes among the member
states. It encourages cooperation from its members for programs to enable all
countries to use IP for the flourishment of all its members.

11) World Meteorological Organization (WMO)

The WMO was founded on the 23rd of March, 1950. It has its headquarters in Geneva,
Switzerland, and has 193 member states. It is an organization that deals with meteorology or
the study of weather and provides all relevant information to its member states.

Objectives

 Its main objective is to research, predict, and warn its members about natural
calamities.
 It performs research on various aspects of the environment and finds ways to make
life more sustainable on Earth.
 It is also its responsibility to regulate and facilitate the unrestricted exchange of
data information and services in time. It tries to keep innovating and promoting the
field of meteorology.

12) International Maritime Organization (IMO)

The IMO was founded on 17th March 1948. Its headquarters are located in London, UK. It
has a total of 176 member states.

Objectives

 Aims to resolve any maritime conflict among its members.

 It aims to develop, maintain, and ensure the implementation of its regulatory
framework for the shipping industry. This covers different aspects of shipping,
including ship design, construction, equipment, and operation.
 Aims to ensure safety and security in shipping and avoid collisions by crew training to
prevent accidents.
 It also aims to reduce the pollution made by shipping industries by preventing oil
spills and shipwrecks.

13) Universal Postal Union (UPU)

The UPU was formed on 9 October 1874 and was later affiliated to the UN after its formation
in 1948. Its headquarters are located in Bern, Switzerland. It has 192 member states.

Objectives

 The UPU’s main objective is to draft postal standards that can be used universally.
  Its objective is also to improve access to postal services in its members. Also to
increase the quality of services, and betterment of communication between people
worldwide.
 It aims to make the postal field evolve and adapt to the changing times by digitalizing
and fastness services provided.

14) International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)

The ICAO was formed on 4th April 1947. Its headquarters are located in Montreal, Canada. It
has 193 member states. Civil Aviation means the use of airways except for military purposes
but as a medium of travel connecting places, people, and cultures. ICAO is an organization
related to airways and how it can be used for peace and the betterment of mankind.

Objectives

 ICAO‘s main objective has been the safety of people on flights. It is working to
achieve the goal of zero fatalities by the year 2030.
 It is making and implementing internationally accepted standards in civil aviation by
various innovations.
 Security in civil aviation has been another objective that ICAO intends to achieve
through high-security protocols, screening, etc.
 With the development, it also aims to protect the environment by
reducing the emissions and noise by planes.

15) United Nations Tourism (UN Tourism)

It was formed on 1st November 1975. Its headquarters are located in Madrid, Spain. It has
160 member states. It has been constantly contributing to promoting the tourism sector of its
members.

Objectives

 It advocates for the importance of tourism as a major factor for growth and
development. It promotes sustainable tourism that conserves environmental
resources, respects the socio-cultural authenticity of the countries, and provides socio-
economic benefits for all its members.
 It aims to enhance tourism in its members through policy planning, marketing and
crisis management.
 It aims to increase the economic productivity of its members and ultimately reduce
poverty.
 It believes in Building partnerships between its members for the overall
prosperity of all.

Related Organisations

16) Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization (CTBTO)

It was formed on the 19th of November 1996. Its headquarters are located in Vienna, Austria.

Objectives
  (CTBT) aims bans nuclear explosions on the Earth, whether it is in the
atmosphere underwater, or underground whether for military or peaceful purposes.
 It aims to convince its members to dispose of all nuclear weaponry.
 It also aims to eradicate use of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes by innovating
better methods.

17)Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW)

It was formed on the 9th of April 1997. Its headquarters are located in The Hague in the
Netherlands. It has 193 member states.

Objectives

 It aims to eliminate the use of chemistry for war.

 It encourages the use of chemistry for peaceful purposes.
 It encourages its members by providing them with resources related to chemistry that
they can use for research.

18) International Organization for Migration

The IOM was founded on 6th December 1951. Its headquarters are
located in Geneva Switzerland.

Objectives

 It aims to manage the migration of people.

 It also aims to provide aid to all the people who have migrated to various regions in
times of crisis by providing food and shelter to them.
 Aims to seek mutual coordination among its members to asses and solve migratory
issues around the globe.
 It also helps its members to control their immigration and emigration rates.

19) International Atomic Energy Agency

The International Atomic Energy Agency was founded on 29 July 1957. The IAEA’s
headquarters are in Vienna, Austria.

Objectives

 Its main objective is to assist its Member States, in planning for and using nuclear
science and technology for various peaceful purposes in a sustainable manner.
 It researches various uses of nuclear energy for energy generation and other purposes.
 Tries to develop standards for the use of nuclear material and disposal of nuclear
waste.
 It tries to inhibit the use of nuclear energy for military uses.
20) World Trade Union

It was formed on the 1st of January 1995. Its headquarters are located in Geneva Switzerland.
It was proposed as a specialized body but instead became a subsidiary organization.

Objectives

 Its objective is to improve the trade relations among their member states for the
mutual development and prosperity of all.
 It aids its members by providing suitable policies and advice to improve their
economies via trading.

Organs of the UN

The UN has 6 principal organs for coordinating and administering various purposes. They
have their own autonomy and have specific responsibilities to carry out.

1) General Assembly

General Assembly is the UN’s organ that performs deliberative, supervisory, financial, and
elective functions relating to any matter within the scope of the UN Charter. All 193 Member
States of the UN are represented in the General Assembly. Each year, in September,
the full UN membership meets in the General Assembly Hall in New York for the annual
General Assembly session, which many heads of state attend and address.

The six major committees which operate under the general assembly are:

(1) Disarmament and International Security

(2) Economic and Financial

(3) Social, Humanitarian, and Cultural

(4) Special Political and Decolonization

(5) Administrative and Budgetary

(6) Legal.

In the General Assembly members can discuss various topics on different issues in the world.
In these discussions, the general assembly passes several resolutions, amendments, and
policies which are universally accepted.

The United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) is the chief policy-making and
representative body of the UN.

Facts About the General Assembly

 It is the only UN body where all the UN members are represented

 GA is headed by a President who is elected for a one-year tenure
  The GA is headquartered in New York.

Functions of the UNGA:

 Approve the UN budget. Consider and make recommendations on the general

principles of cooperation for maintaining international security and peace.
 Conduct studies and make recommendations to encourage global political
cooperation for development of international law, realization of human rights,
and encourage collaboration in the social, economic, cultural, and
educational fields.
 Its electoral duties include voting on admitting new members, electing
members for the Economic and Social Council, the non-permanent members
of the Security Council, and the Trusteeship Council, and electing the judges
to the International Court of Justice and electing the secretary-general.

2) Security Council

 The Security Council’s primary responsibility, defined under the UN Charter, is the
maintenance of international peace and security. The Security Council originally
consisted of 11 members—five permanent and six non-permanent—elected by the
General Assembly for two-year terms. This was changed in an amendment in 1965 to
having a total of 15 Members (5 permanent and 10 non-permanent members), and all
Member States are obligated to comply with Council decisions. The Security Council
has a President. The presidency is held by each of its members for a term of one
month

Facts About the Security Council

 The UNSC is headquartered in New York

 The 5 permanent members of the council are China, France, Russia, the UK, and
USA.
 The non-permanent members are chosen from various parts of the world to achieve
equitable regional representation.

Function

 Any country even if it is not a part of the SC can come to the council with a dispute
which will be resolved.
 It identifies conflicts and calls upon the parties to settle them by peaceful means.
 When needed the council sanctions the use of force for the protection of humanity.
 It provides military support to its members in times of need.
 Economic sanctions are also made to help its members

3) Economic and Social Council

The Economic and Social Council is the principal venue for the discussion of international
economic and social issues, it directs and coordinates the economic, social, humanitarian, and
cultural activities of the UN and its specialized agencies. It also coordinates policy
reviews, policy dialogue, and recommendations on economic, social, and
environmental issues. It is the United Nations’ central platform for reflection, debate, and
innovative thinking on sustainable development.

Facts of the Economic and Social Council

· it is headquartered in New York

It has 54 Members, elected by the General Assembly for overlapping three-year terms.

· The ECOSOC presidency is for one year

 each member has one vote in the ECOSOC.

Functions of the Economic and Social Council

1. Most of ECOSOC’s work is performed in functional commissions on topics such

as human rights, narcotics, population, social development, statistics, the status of women,
and science and technology

2. The council also oversees regional development for various places like Europe, Asia and
the Pacific, Western Asia, Latin America, and Africa.

3. It overlooks the work of the UN’s specialized agencies like the FAO, UNESCO,
UNICEF, the ILO, etc.

4. It is the UN’s principal platform for reflection, debate, and innovative thinking on
sustainable development universally.

4) Trusteeship Council

The Trusteeship Council was designed to supervise the government of the 11 trust
territories and to lead them to achieve independence. The trusteeship system, like was
established with the goal of guarding colonial territories from being taken from countries
defeated in the Second World War and not being annexed by the victorious powers but to
treat them as a trust country under international supervision until their future status was
determined. The trusteeship system encouraged the trust territories to petition for their
independence. With the independence of the Republic of Palau in 1994, the last remaining
trust territory, the council terminated its operations. No longer required to meet annually, the
council may meet on the decision of its president or a request by a majority of its members,
by the General Assembly, or by the Security Council. Since 1994 new and innovative roles
for which the council can be repurposed have been proposed, including serving as a forum for
minority and native peoples.

Facts about the Trusteeship Council

  The members include the permanent members of the Security Council and also
members elected by the general assembly
 Each member had one vote, and decisions were taken by a simple majority of those
present
 The last Trust Territory to become independent was Palau in 1994.

Functions

1. Since the Council was created, many territories have become independent and are
self-governing.
2. It takes care of the welfare of the independent trust countries
3. Supervises their elections and ensures that the country functions like all other
countries
4. Monitors and tries to improve the condition of the people living in the trust countries
5. Promotes these countries and provides aid to these countries for their development or
in times of crisis

5) International Court of Justice

The International Court of Justice, commonly known as the World Court is the principal
judicial organ of the United Nations. It is located in the Peace Palace in the Hague
(Netherlands). The Court’s role is to settle, in accordance with international law, legal
disputes submitted to it by States and to give advisory opinions on legal questions referred
to it by authorized United Nations organs and specialized agencies. The International Court
of Justice functions in accordance with its Statute and the UN charter.

Facts About

· Its origins predate the League of Nations

· It is the only one of the six principal organs of the United Nations not located in New
York.

 All 193 UN members are automatically a party to the ICJ.

 There are 15 judges in the court
 The judges are elected by the General Assembly and the Security Council
 The judges serve a term of 9 years

functions

1. To settle in accordance with international law the legal disputes submitted to it by

States.
2. To give advisory opinions on legal questions referred to it by the general assembly or
the security council or by a specialized agency authorized by the general assembly.
 3. It also aims to encourage universal peace
4. The ICJ has different chambers and committees to handle various types of cases.
5. It can also hear cases involving non-member state parties if they agree to its
jurisdiction.

6) Secretariat

The Secretariat is the major governing and coordinating body of the UN. It is based in mainly
4 locations in New York, Geneva, Vienna, Nairobi (Kenya), and other locations. It majorly
comprises of the Secretary-General and thousands of international UN staff members who
carry out the day-to-day work of the UN. The secretary-general is the principal and chief
administrative officer of the United Nations, who is elected for a renewable term of five-year
by a two-thirds vote of the General Assembly and by the recommendation of the Security
Council. UN staff members are recruited internationally and locally and work in duty stations
and on peacekeeping missions all around the world. The people are selected based purely on
merit.

The Secretariat has five regional commissions:

1. ECA – Economic Commission for Africa

2. ECE – Economic Commission for Europe
3. ECLAC – Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean
4. ESCAP – Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific
5. ESCWA – Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia

Facts

1. They work at stations all over the world.

2. The influence of the Secretariat can be attributed to the fact that some 9,000 people on
its staff are permanent experts and international civil servants rather than political
appointees of member states.

Functions

1. To gather and prepare background information on various issues for the UN organs
and delegates
2. To help carry out the decisions made by the different organs of the UN
3. To organize international conferences
4. To translate speeches and documents into the UN’s official languages
5. To set the agenda for the deliberative and decision-making bodies of the UN

Conclusion
The UN’s role in maintaining world peace is immense and the work of its bodies in various
fields to protect humanity by sustainable methods and creating a better future is one of its
many virtues. Its various bodies work day and night to make the world a better place. Its
organs also work to keep the virtuous organization functional.

High Court of India

Introduction

The High Courts of India are the highest judicial court in every State and Union Territory.
Article 214 deals with the establishment of High Courts in every state. In total, there are a
total of 25 High Courts in India. They have the power to exercise their original civil and
criminal jurisdiction in any case.

History of High Courts in India

The British Raj established the first High courts in India. Once the British established
themselves as the rulers of India, to govern the country they established the first high Courts
in India in 1858, on the recommendation of the law commission the Indian High Courts Act,
1861. According to which High Courts were built in the provinces of Calcutta Bombay and
Madras.

Indian High Courts

Today India has the largest number of high courts in the world. It has 25 high courts in
total. In India, there is a high court for each state and union territory. They handle most
number of cases worldwide.

Composition

The Indian High Courts are composed of a Chief Justice. The chief justice is appointed by the
President of India with the consultation of the chief justice of the supreme court, the governor
of that particular state, and if required the chief justice of other state’s high courts.

The high courts comprised puisne judges as well. There is no maximum on the number of the
other judges in the court.
Qualification

The qualifications required for a candidate to be selected as the chief justice of a high court
are:

1) The candidate should be a citizen of India.

2) The candidate must be at least 35 years old and not more than 62 years age.
3) The candidate must have a bachelor’s degree in law (LLB) from a recognized
university.
4) They must also Clear the All India Bar Examination (AIBE) conducted by the Bar
Council of India which is necessary to practice law in India.
5) The candidate should have been a judge of a Subordinate Court for a minimum of 10
years.
6) The candidate has been a lawyer for over 10 years in any High Court in India.
7) The individual must be medically (physically and mentally) fit to perform the duties
of a High Court Judge.

Tenure

The tenure of a high court judge is till he reaches the age of 62 years. However, the judge can
resign whenever he/she wishes to. If the judge is found misusing their power he/she can be
terminated by the president of India,

Jurisdiction under the High Court

The High Court is the highest judicial power in a state or a union territory. It is considered to
be the protector of the Fundamental Rights of the citizens, along with the supervisory and
consultative roles.

1) Original Jurisdiction

The original jurisdiction refers to the authority vested in the higher court to hear and decide
cases directly, without the need for the case to first be heard by a lower court. Under Article
225, every High Court has original jurisdiction. In such cases, the applicant can directly
approach the High Court and is not required to raise any appeal.

It includes cases related to:

Enforcement of Fundamental Rights

Disputes Between districts and states

Revenue matters

Marriage related

2) Applet Jurisdiction
It is for the cases where the applicant has raised a complaint challenging the judgment given
by a subordinate court of the same state.

It includes cases related to:

Death sentences

Jail sentences

Lifetime sentence

Property related issues

They can be divided into:

i. Civil Jurisdiction

These courts deal with civil cases. They deal with cases related to property issues, protection
of fundamental rights, etc.

ii. Criminal Jurisdiction

It deals with cases related to checking or challenging the death sentence, lifetime sentences,
and jail sentences.

3) Writ Jurisdiction

Writs are a written order from the Supreme or High Court that provides constitutional
remedies to all Indian Citizens against violation of their fundamental rights, this can be
found in Article 32 of the Indian Constitution. The same article gives the Supreme Court
power to issue writs. According to Article 226 of the Indian Constitution, the High Courts are
vested with the same power as the Supreme Court to issue writs for the enforcement of the
fundamental rights of the citizens of India. High courts have the power to issue writs within
and beyond the borders of its territorial power.

The different types of writs that the High Courts can issue-

i) Habeas Corpus

Habeas corpus means to have the body. It is a constitutional remedy provided to those
who are unlawfully detained or imprisoned. The court orders the officers to bring the
prisoner or produce the body to the court, to determine whether their detention is
lawful or not.

ii) Mandamus

The word mandamus means to command. The writ of mandamus commands the performance
of some activity/duty on the part of the person or body to whom it is addressed. The
performance of this duty cannot be avoided by any other means or law enforcement.
 iii) Certiorari

The literal meaning of the writ of ‘Certiorari’ is ‘To be certified’ or ‘To be informed.’ This
writ is issued by a court higher to a lower court ordering them either to transfer a case
pending with them to itself. It is issued on the grounds of lack of jurisdiction of the lower
court or when the higher court wants to know the progress in a particular case.

iv) Quo Warranto

The literal meaning of the writ of ‘Quo-Warranto’ is ‘By what authority’ or ‘by what
warrant’. It is issued to prevent a person's illegal usurpation of a public office. Through this
writ, the court enquires into the legality of a claim of a person to a public office

v) Prohibition

The meaning of ‘Prohibition’ is ‘To forbid.’ A court that is higher in position issues a
Prohibition writ against a court that is lower in position to prevent the latter from exceeding
jurisdiction that it does not possess.

4) Power of Judicial Review

The High Courts are vested with the power of Judicial Review to examine the
constitutionality of the legislative and executive orders of the central and state government
and review whether they are doing their duties lawfully and adhering to the laws of
the Constitution. They can ask for a record of their progress in their term and analyze it. It is
to make the public aware of the leaders that they have elected.

5) Control of the Subordinate Courts

The High Court can take up any pending case from the subordinate court if it involves a
question of law (special cases). The question of law can be solved in the high court and the
case can return to the same court. It is also done when the jurisdiction is not a part of a
subordinate court. This is done when the case is a serious one like a criminal case or violation
of fundamental rights.

6) A Court of Record

The high court makes a record of all the proceedings in the court. The judgments, statements,
and all the acts of the High Courts are recorded. These records are made to keep track of all
the cases that are solved and also to refer them when a similar case approaches the
court. These records are made in a very authentic manner and cannot be questioned in any
other court.

Conclusion

The high courts of India deal with more cases than other countries. We have glanced at the
history, composition, jurisdiction and qualification for the judges in Indian high courts. It has
given us an insight into our country’s judicial system.

Lok Adalat
Lok Adalat is a Statutory Organization under the Legal Services Authorities Act, 1987. It was
created as an alternative dispute resolution mechanism used in India to resolve
disputes/grievances outside courts and to ensure that cases are resolved in a fast manner and
that justice is served.

Features of the Lok Adalat

1. Legal Status: Lok Adalats has been given statutory status under the Legal Services
Authorities Act, of 1987. This means that they operate within a legal framework and have
specific guidelines for their functioning. They have legal recognition and can enforce laws.

2. Informal litigation: It operates on the principles of people’s emotions and provides an

alternative to formal litigation processes. It considers the emotions and also establishes
mutual understanding among both parties and arrives on a final verdict.

3. People’s Court: The term “Lok Adalat” means “People’s Court.” This shows that it is
very approachable and accessible to everyone.

4. Settlement Mechanism: The Lok Adalat follows this system known as the settlement
system. According to this, the court aims to settle/end disputes by mutual compromise,
adjustment, and understanding of both parties instead of legal enforcement/trials/procedures.

5. Legal Verdict: the verdicts given by the lok adalats are given the recognition of a
decree issued by a civil court. It is final and binding upon all the people it is
intended for.

Advantages

 Fast delivery of justice:

Lok Adalats offers very efficient way to settle cases and most cases are settled in a
single day.

 Flexible:

There is no strict application of procedures like trials, legal enforcements, and laws
like Indian Evidence Act, of 1872 is not taken in consideration. It considers feelings
of the people to arrive on a satisfactory verdict for both parties. Hence they are very
flexible.

 Approachable:

It is more approachable since main focus is on compromise and not on punishment

this drives fear away from people and making the lok adalat more approachable

 Economical:

There is usually no court fee but if the court fee is to be paid, the amount will be
refunded if the dispute is settled at Lok Adalat. Thus makinglok adalat a cost free
mode of resolving cases as compared to courts.
  Removes Load from High Courts:

The lok adalat can take up few minor cases from the courts and unburden high Courts.
This also results in removal of backlogged cases.

Composition

The Lok Adalat is composed of a chairman who presides over the Lok Adalat and is given
equal status to a judge of a civil court.

It also comprises two other members who deal with delivering the final verdict and advising
the chairman

There is another member who should be a social worker who takes into consideration
the factors other than proofs in the adalat.

Qualifications

The chairman must be a sitting or retired judicial officer.

The other two members should be a lawyer

The other member must be a recognized social worker with no political background

Jurisdiction

o It can take up any case or matter being heard by that court under its original jurisdiction.

 Their proactive approach to compensation and compromise

 Their verdict is legal and binding but may by challenged in a high court

Conclusion

We have seen the advantages features, composition and jurisdiction of the Lok Adalat. This
has shown the alternative way by which justice is served in our country. We have seen the
various advantages it offers and the jurisdiction it possesses.
Conclusion

In the first part of this project, we have seen the life of the father of our nation and how his
life should be taken as an ideal by us. His contribution to the independence we see today is
immense. We have seen his non-violent movements and the development of his
satyagraha. The work he has done during various stages to give India independence
is immense.

The United Nations which was discussed in the second part of this project shows us the UN’s
role in maintaining world peace and protecting humanity. We have seen the various bodies of
the UN which work tirelessly to serve humanity and protect the world and how they aim to
make a better future by sustainable methods. We have also seen the 6 organs of the
UN which coordinate and administrate the organization and keep it functional.

In the last part of this project, we discussed the Indian high courts. We saw its history,
jurisdiction, powers, composition, and so on. This made us aware of how the judiciary system
works in our country.

We also discussed the lok adalat and its features, composition, advantages, jurisdiction, and
so on. This has given us an insight into the alternate method in which justice is served in our
country.
Bibliography

Google

Wikipedia

Total History Text Book

Brainly

Unacademy

United Nations

Pinterest