Chapter 1

Themes of Biology
➢ five major themes
• organization
• information
• energy and matter
• interaction
• evolution
➢ life on Earth is amazing, diverse, resilient, powerful, intelligent,
mystify

New properties emerge at successive level

➢ hierarchy of life on earth,

• biosphere,
• ecosystem,
• community,
• population,
• organisms,
• organ system,
• organ,
• tissue,
• cell,
• organelle,
• molecule
• atom
➢ with each setup, new properties emerge because interaction at
lower levels
➢ structure and function are interrelated at each level,
➢ a correlation of structure and function observed
hummingbird's anatomy
➢ allow the wings to rotate at shoulder
➢ the ability to fly backward or hover
➢ can extend their long slender beaks into flower, feed on nectar

the cell

➢ a basic unit structure and function of an organisms

➢ lowest level of organization either prokaryote or eukaryote
• eukaryotic cell → membrane enclosed organelles
→ including DNA in nucleus
• prokaryotic cell lacks membrane enclosed organelles

Life processes involve the expression and transmission of

genetic information
➢ genetic information - encoded in nucleotide sequences of DNA
➢ DNA transmits information from parents to offspring
➢ DNA sequences called genes act as instruction
➢ protein production → transcribed into mRNA
→ translate into specific proteins
➢ this process is called gene expression
➢ also produce some RNA
➢ not translated into proteins
Life requires transfer and transformation
➢ energy flows through ecosystem
➢ all organisms require energy for their life
➢ producers convert energy from sunlight to chemical energy
➢ some passed to consumers (rest lost as heat)
➢ chemical cycle occurs between organisms and environments

Molecules to Ecosystems

➢ organisms interact continuously with physical factors

➢ plants take up
• nutrients from soil,
• chemical from air,
• energy from sun
➢ feedback regulated by its output or product
➢ negative feedback → slows its production
➢ positive feedback → speeds ap its own production
➢ Common to life at all levels

Evolution for unity and diversity of life

➢ evolution is process of change → transformed life on earth
➢ account for unity and diversity of life
➢ explain evolutionary adaptation
➢ Bacteria and Archaea → prokaryotes
➢ Protist, fungi, plants and animals → Eukarya
➢ Darwin proposed nature selection as mechanism for evolution
➢ nature selection is defined as evolutionary process
Importance of biology in daily life
➢ scientific research and development of new tools and techniques
have improved the quality of our lives
➢ relevance of biology → importance of human society
➢ allows human beings to know their bodies, their resources and
potential threats

➢ helps us to understand function, evolve and interact

➢ Advances in medicine, agriculture, biotechnology
➢ improvements in the quality of life

➢ genetics and evolution give insight into the past, shape the future
➢ research in ecology and conservation inform protect planet's
precious biodiversity
➢ understand the characteristics of living things
➢ how gems work and help us staying healthier

Agriculture, Horticulture and Hydroponic culture

➢ the food is result of agriculture

➢ human and animals depend on agricultural product
Agriculture
➢ defined to produce commodities which maintain life
➢ food, fibers, forest products agricultural crops, horticultural crops
and agricultural crops
➢ mean food or fiber grown for resale or commercial or economic
purposes
➢ provide foods, clothing or animal feeds include nursery products
and florist item
➢ global major agricultural products grouped into
• foods,
• fibers,
• fuels and
• raw materials (rubber)
➢ commercially cultivation crops in Myanmar cereals, pulses and
oilseed crops
➢ Myanmar's farms are well diversified
o rice paddy → monsoon season
o beans, pulses, oilseed, maize → cool and dry seasons
Rice (Oryza sativa)
➢ rain fed lowland rice, winter rice, deep- water rice, upland rice and
irrigated rice
➢ monsoon → main rice production
➢ two rice production systems
• rain fed low land,
• irrigated lowland
➢ traditional method → flooding the fields
➢ require sound irrigation planning
➢ reduce weed and pest, deters vermin
➢ other methods require higher effort in weed and pest control

Wheat (Triticum aestivum)

➢ cultivated for its seeds

➢ a cereal grain, worldwide staple food
➢ cultivated once a year
➢ sown by four methods
• broadcasting
• behind the local plough
• drilling
• dibbling
➢ Zero-tillage technique
➢ new method used in Rice-Wheat cropping System.
➢ Require a well – pulverized but compact seedbed
Maize (Zea mays )
➢ tropical plant
➢ prefers warm humid weather
➢ a short-day plant
➢ very sensitive to excess or deficit soil moisture
➢ cannot withstand frost at any stage of growth
➢ sown with dibbling or drilling
➢ seed should not be sown more than 5-6 cm

• Myanmar is leading pulse and bean producer (ASEAN)

• third - largest producer after India and Canada (Global)
• 18 types of pulses are produced in Myanmar
blackgram → Vigna mungo

greengram → Vigna radiata

pigeonpea → Cajanus cajan

chickpea → Cicer arietinum

ground nut → Arachis hypogaea
sesame → Sesamum indicum
Horticulture
➢ branch of agriculture
➢ applied science for consumption and aesthetic or ornamental
purposes
➢ involve plant propagation and cultivation
➢ the word horticulture derived from Latin words
• hortus → garden
• cultura → cultivation

➢ horticulture does not include intensive crop farming and large-

scale crop production or animal husbandry
➢ focuses on the use of small plots with mix crops
➢ agriculture focuses one large primary cop

Olericulture vegetable growing nonwoody

(herbaceous) for food
Pomology or fruits and nuts
Fruticulture
Viticulture grapes (wine making)

Floriculture flowers and ornamental plants

Turf management turf artificial and live
use in recreation sports stadium, civilian
landscaping leisure, largest users
Arboriculture individual trees, shrubs, vines, woody
plants
Landscape used in landscape architecture
Horticulture
Postharvest management of harvested horticultural
Physiology crops to optimize shelf life
Hydroponic culture
➢ Hydroponics is method of growing plants without soil
➢ use less water than traditional soil-based systems
➢ faster growth and higher yields
➢ subset of hydroculture
➢ using water-based mineral nutrient solution in aqueous solvents
➢ physically supported by inert medium perlite, gravel

➢ nutrients → fish excrement, duck manure, chemical fertilizers,

artificial nutrient
➢ commonly grown in a greenhouse
➢ Arabidopsis → model organisms in plant science and genetics.
➢ notably a decrease in water usage
➢ future for people in harsh environments
Aquaculture
➢ known as aquafarming
➢ farming of aquatic organisms cultivating freshwater, brackish
water and saltwater population
➢ under controlled or semi-natural conditions
• commercial fishing → harvesting of wild fish
➢ regular stocking, feeding, protection from predators.

Fish farming or pisciculture

➢ commercial breeding of fish
➢ in fish tank or artificial enclosures (fish ponds)
➢ particular type of aquaculture
➢ controlled cultivation and harvesting of aquatic animals
➢ most important fish species
1. Carp,
2. Salmon
3. Tilapia,
4. Catfish

Mariculture or marine farming

➢ cultivation of marine organisms
o open ocean → offshore
o littoral waters → inshore
o artificial tank (with seawater) → onshore
Shrimp farming
➢ marine or fresh water environment
➢ producing shrimp or prawns for human consumption.

Oyster farming
➢ bred mainly for their pearls, shells and inner organ tissues.

Algaculture

➢ farming algae species

➢ microalgae and macroalgae
➢ majority of algae Intentionally cultivated → microalgae
➢ commonly known as seaweed → macroalgae

Integrated fish farming

➢ combination with other agricultural or livestock

➢ centered on fish pond
➢ by products or wastes from one sub-system valuable inputs to
another sub-system

Uses of aquaculture

➢ food production, restoration of threatened and endangered

species. wild stock population enhancement, building aquariums
livestock
➢ any domesticated, land-living animals
➢ provide resources → meat, milk, egg, feathers
➢ provide services → transportation, cultivation assistance
➢ most common livestock animals, cattle, sheep goat, pig, horse,
chicken, duck

Economic value of livestock

Meat → dietary protein and energy

Dairy products → source of milk, yogurt cheese, butter

Fibre or textile → sheep and goats produce wool and mohair

Fertilizer

• manure can spread to increase crop yields

• make plaster for walls and floors
• used as a fuel for fire
• blood and bone of animals used as fertilizer
Labour

• horse, donkey, yaks (non-human labor) for mechanical energy

• using in plowing field, transporting goods military function.

Land management → to control weed and undergrowth

Breeding → horse breeding
Sports → horse racing or polo
Pets industry → may be raised to sold
Importance of livestock
➢ global demand increasing rapidly due to population growth, rising
income, change in lifestyle and diets.
➢ key drivers in agriculture
➢ contribute to
• food security, nutrition, poverty alleviation, economic growth
• conservation of biodiversity and genetics resources
• ecosystem functioning,
• nutrient cycling
• soil organic carbon sequestration,
• maintaining agricultural landscape
Food
➢ one of the major requirements of life
➢ all form of living matter required food
➢ plants only able to manufacture food. (photosynthesis)
➢ classified into
• heat or energy producing food → carbohydrates
• body building food → protein and fats
• protective food → vitamins and mineral
• luxury food → confectioneries

➢ food must contain sufficiently carbohydrates, proteins, fats, oil,

vitamins, minerals

➢ without food - viability of life - not feasible

➢ food items come from plants and animals
➢ microbes aid diary products → curd, cheese, yoghurt.
➢ Lactobacillus - formation of card from milk
➢ yeast → simplest Eukaryotes → used in the fermentation
➢ wine obtained for from grapes (fermentation)
➢ microorganism present in soil → decomposing agent
➢ compost from dead and decaying organic matter acts as effective
fertilizer for the growing plants.
Health and Medicine
➢ biology - study of various disease-causing microorganisms
➢ have discovered controlling the diseases

Pharmacognosy
➢ Greek words → drug and knowledge
➢ deals with the secondary metabolites
➢ American Society of Pharmacognosy (ASP)
➢ South - East Asian Region have traditional medicine system
➢ WHO report 80% of world population using natural product
➢ provide safe and effective drugs combines with modern medical
system

➢ today's medicine made from plants

➢ chief ingredient of aspirin salicylic acid
➢ from bark of willow tree
➢ willow is genus Salix (same name salicylic acid)
➢ bark of Cinchona tree, Cinchona sp, contains quinine, treat
malaria
➢ Digitalis treat heart disease, leaves of foxglove plant, Digitalis
purpurea
➢ Periwinkle, Catharanthus sp. Hodgkin disease some leukemia
➢ morphine and codeine, from opium poppy Papaver somniferum
➢ 50% of commercially drugs based on bioactive compound from
non-human species
➢ almost every class of dug includes a model structure from nature
➢ healing of human minor illness based on medicine from animals
zootherapy
➢ current percentage is quite significant

Leeches

➢ Slimy bloodsuckers
➢ eat ten times, its own body weight of blood
➢ reattach digits close wound, mend skin after plastic surgery
➢ Hirudo medicinalis
➢ Approved by Food and Drug Administration for medical use
➢ secrete anti-coagulants helps to keep blood flowing
➢ blood pool in reattached thumb sucked out by the leech until the
veins redevelop

Viper venom
➢ bradykinin stop Angiotensis-Converting Enzymes
➢ cause blood vessels to dilates and lower blood pressure
➢ developed into drug captopril
➢ treat hypertension, cardiac condition, preserve kidney functions in
diabetics

Maggots
➢ voracious eaters, feed on diseased and dying flesh
➢ from chronic wounds and infections
➢ can turns chronic wound into acute wound in a matter of days
➢ eating chronic tissue and bacteria
➢ work quickly cost less than traditional treatment
Spider silk
➢ referred as bio-steel
➢ has super tensile strength
➢ make artificial ligaments and tendons
➢ spider silk gene is connected to DNA in mammary gland of goat
➢ silk protein is made when the female starts lactating

Salmon

➢ produce calcitonin hormones from endocrine glands in their neck

➢ humans make calcitonin - in thyroid gland
➢ inhibits bone loss
➢ postmenopausal women, Paget's disease → the rate of bone lose
increase
➢ coho salmon - calcitonin salmon
➢ used to treat people with calcium regulation disorders.

Horseshoe crab
➢ over millions of years - exposed to lot of microbes
➢ immune to a wider range of threats
➢ every person receives vaccines, antibiotics or implanted medical
devices (pacemakers) had the blue blood of horseshoe crab
➢ protein called Limulus Amebocyte Lysate reacts to all kinds of
microorganisms
➢ can easily detect dangerous endotoxins
➢ blood react any contamination
Clothing and Shelter
➢ cotton clothes obtained from plants
➢ thick sweaters made of wool
➢ linen, nylon and fibric dyes from plants
➢ polyester from fossils
➢ fibric → Plant-based

➢ plant fibres are sclerenchymatous cells

➢ mostly elongated with thick walls
➢ deposition of cellulose and lignin
➢ small cavities and tapering ends
➢ sheet of tissue with overlapping and interlocking cell walls
➢ sometimes occur singly or in small groups

Cotton
➢ Gossypium Spp.
➢ world's chief fibre plant
➢ industrial crop of Myanmar
➢ main areas - central Myanmar around Mandalay, Magway and
Sagaing Regions

Jute

➢ Corchorus Spp.
➢ a tropical plant
➢ grow best in hot and humid climate
➢ plenty of rain and flooding at a later stage
➢ in making roofing materials, curtains and gunny bags
Sericulture
➢ agro-based industry
➢ rearing of silkworm moths Bombyx mori raw
➢ raw silk (yarn) obtained out of cocoons
➢ rural employment, poverty alleviation, earning foreign exchange

➢ Silkworm - four stages life cycle

• egg,
• caterpillar (larva),
• pupa,
• adult moth
➢ Worm hatched → caterpillars
➢ food specific
➢ eat voraciously on mulberry leaves
➢ secrete protein fluid called silk and spin cocoon
➢ changing adult form from pupa inside cocoon → metamorphosis
➢ continuous protein filament from the cocoon obtain silk

Silk
➢ Queen of textile
➢ its qualities → luxury, elegance, class and comfort
➢ one of the most expensive fibres
➢ due to its cost and tedious production
➢ major source of textile after cotton
Sericulture
➢ China and India , two main producers 90% of world production
➢ cultured in Pyin 0o Lwin, Mandalay Region chin state.

Wool
➢ most widely used animal fibres
➢ mainly harvested by shearing
➢ obtain from sheep, goats, rabbits, camelids
➢ consists of protein + a small percentage of lipids
➢ chemically quite distance from cotton and other plant fibres
➢ plant fibres (mainly cellulose)
➢ quality of wool is determined by fibre diameter, crimp, yield, color,
staple strength
➢ fibre diameter most importance

➢ wool and cotton → traditionally used for cloth dip diapers

➢ essential fibre for winter clothing

➢ wool industry in Australia, Argentia, United states, New Zealand

➢ major suppliers
Wood
➢ important plant product
➢ sevice of humankind since dawn of civilization
➢ ranks next to food and fibres
➢ seems to be indispensable
➢ its supply can be renewed

➢ unprocessed wood used as lumber (intended for heavy

construction)
➢ cheapest and most widely used construction material
➢ high strength, lightweight, easy availability, continuous supply,
high resistance to electrical and chemical stimuli

➢ major portion of timber used for structural purpose

➢ structural timbers are obtained from softwoods and from the heart
of the tree
o Teak → Tectona grandis
o Pyinkado → Xylia dolabriformis
➢ most valuable of timber yielding plants of Myanmar
➢ most important commercial timbers