INTRODUCTION TO THE HUMAN BODY

ANATOMY - a branch of science that deals with the structure of body parts, their forms, and how
they are organized.
PHYSIOLOGY - deals with how the systems of the body work, and the ways in which their
integrated cooperation maintains the life and health of an individual.

SUBDIVISIONS OF ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

1. GROSS ANATOMY - study of large easily observable structures.

2. MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY -the study of very small structures that require magnifying
instruments.
3. DEVELOPMENTAL ANATOMY - study of structural changes from conception to birth.
Ex. Zygote, fetus
4. PATHOLOGICAL ANATOMY - deals with the cause and nature of the disease and the
changes in the structure and function that result from the disease.
5. NEUROPHYSIOLOGY - the study of the working or function of the nervous system.
Neurons/nerve cells are the fundamental units of the brain and N.S..
6. CARDIAC PHYSIOLOGY - study of the function of the heart. Myocardium is the muscles
of the heart that relax and contract to produce a heartbeat and are stimulated by electrical
pulses at the pacemaker (Sinoatrial node)
7. CELLULAR PHYSIOLOGY - the study of the interactions between the cells and their
organelles.
8. DEVELOPMENTAL PHYSIOLOGY - the study of the functional changes that occur as an
organism develops. During embryonic development and across its life span.
9. PATHOLOGICAL PHYSIOLOGY - the study of the functional changes that occur as the
organ ages or becomes diseased.

LEVELS OF STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION - how an individual is organized as a whole.

1. CHEMICAL - simplest level of organization

a. Atoms - simplest level
b. Molecules - 2 or more atoms
c. Macromolecules - large biologically important molecules
d. Organelles - aggregates of macromolecules. Used to carry out specific functions in the cell.

2 MAJOR CATEGORIES OF THE CHEMICAL LEVEL

a. Inorganic Chemicals - made up of 2 or more elements other than carbon with the exemption
of CO2. ex. H2O, Minerals, O2
b. Organic Chemicals - Very complex elements containing Carbon and Hydrogen like
carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acid, etc.

2. CELLULAR LEVEL - Trillions of cells. Cells are the structural and functional unit of the body.
3. TISSUE LEVEL - a group of similarly specialized cells and their intercellular material.
4. ORGAN LEVEL - consists of organs, structure of definite form and function; composed of 2 or
more different tissues (2 or more similar cells only)
5. SYSTEM LEVEL - associations of organs and has a common function that forms an organism.
SYSTEMS OF THE BODY

1. INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM - external covering of the body, skin hair nails. Protects the deeper
tissues from injury. Minor excretory organ. Regulates body temperature
2. SKELETAL SYSTEM - 20% of body weight. Bones, ligaments, cartilage, and joints. Supports the
body as it serves as a framework for the attachment of the skeletal muscles.
3. MUSCULAR SYSTEM - 40% of total body weight and contains 50-75% of all body proteins.
This is the system for movement.
4. NERVOUS SYSTEM - Consists of the Brain, Spinal cord, Nerves, and sensory receptors. For
irritability (ability to respond) and conductivity (ability to transfer an action to the muscles).
Connected to the Peripheral Nervous System responsible for nerve impulses and electrical signals.
5. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM - Endocrine glands that secret hormones that control bodily functions. It
consists of the pituitary gland, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal glands, thymus, pancreas, pineal glands,
ovaries, Testes, etc.
6. CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM - This specifically refers to the heart (cardio) and blood vessels
(vascular). It includes the heart, which pumps blood, and the network of arteries, veins, and capillaries
that transport blood throughout the body. The cardiovascular system's primary function is to deliver
oxygen, nutrients, and hormones to cells and tissues and remove waste products like carbon dioxide.
RBC - Enthrocytes WBC - Leukocytes Plasma - fluid component of blood
Platelets - thrombocytes

**Circulatory System**: This term is broader and includes the cardiovascular system as well as the
lymphatic system. The circulatory system encompasses the heart, blood vessels, blood, lymphatic
vessels, and lymph (a clear fluid that is part of the immune system). The lymphatic system helps
maintain fluid balance, absorbs dietary fats, and plays a role in immune defense.
7. LYMPHATIC SYSTEM - Compliments the cardiovascular system which consists of the
Lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, and other lymphoid organs. Helps in immunity against infection and
toxins.
8. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM - Consists of the nasal passages, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi,
lungs, Alveoli, etc.
9. DIGESTIVE SYSTEM - Consists of the digestive tract and digestive gland. Mouth (oral cavity),
esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, rectum, and anus.
Digestive glands include salivary glands, liver, and pancreas.
10. URINARY SYSTEM/EXCRETORY SYSTEM - Kidneys, Ureters, bladder, and urethra. The
main function is to eliminate nitrogenous waste products.
11. REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM - For the perpetuation of species.
Male - testes, scrotum, penis, accessory glands, and the duct system
Female - ovaries that produce ova; female duct - uterine tubes, vagina, uterus

HOMEOSTASIS - referred to health. Equilibrium of the body.

FEEDBACK - occurs when an adjustment that a person makes in the present affects the future state
of the body.

2 Types of FEEDBACK

Negative Feedback: This is the most prevalent feedback mechanism. It acts to counteract or diminish
the effects of a stimulus, bringing a physiological parameter back to its set point. For instance, when a
stimulus such as increased body temperature is detected, the body responds by initiating processes like
sweating and vasodilation (widening of blood vessels) to dissipate heat and lower the temperature.
Once the body temperature returns to its normal range, the response is reduced or halted. Negative
feedback thus ensures that any deviation from the set point is corrected, promoting stability.

Positive Feedback: In contrast, positive feedback amplifies the effects of a stimulus, leading to a
greater deviation from the set point. It is less common and usually occurs in specific scenarios where a
rapid or amplified response is necessary. A classic example is the process of childbirth: the stimulus of
uterine contractions triggers the release of the hormone oxytocin, which intensifies the contractions.
This positive feedback loop continues, with each contraction stimulating the further release of
oxytocin, until the baby is born and the stimulus is removed. Positive feedback mechanisms are
typically involved in processes that need to reach a definitive conclusion.

Directional Terms - are the position of the structures relative to one another. It explains and describes
the exact location of the body structure with respect to another. One organ to another.

1. Superior
- Cephalic or Cranial. Upper part of the body, higher position; generally, this refers to the
structure in the trunk – torso.
- – Heart is superior to the Liver.

2. Inferior
- Caudal; Lower position. Towards down which is the lower part of the structure in the trunk.

3. Anterior
- Ventral; opposite of Posterior. It refers to the front part of the body.
- Prone Position, – Anterior Side down
- Supine Position – Anterior side up

4. Posterior
- Dorsal; Pertains to the back, nearer to the backbone. Opposite of anterior. The pharynx is
posterior to the oral cavity.

5. Medial
- The middle part, midline. It also refers to the imaginary line that divides the body.
Nose is medial to the eyes.

6. Lateral
Farther from the midline. Located in the side of the body, away from midline.
Ears are on the lateral side of the head
 7. Intermediate
Located between two structures, like the hands.
- Ring finger is intermediated to Digit 1 and Digit 3 – digit refers to fingers.

8. Ipsilateral
- Same side of the body which is also the imaginary line in the middle/center that divides the
body to right and left sections. Referring to the organ being in the same side of another organ.
Right eye is ipsilateral to right ear.

9. Contralateral
Opposite side of the body, 2 different organs/ body parts are not on the same side. Contrary to
the left, to the right side.
Right eye is contralateral to left ear.

10. Proximal
- Nearer the attachment of an extremity to the trunk; farther from point of origin.
- Elbow is closer to attachment, elbow is proximal to the wrist.

11. Distal
- Farther from attachment, away from point of origin.
Digitals are distal to wrist.

12. Superficial
- A.k.a. “External” referring to the surface of the body
Epidermis is the superficial layer of skin.

13. Deep
- A.k.a. “Internal” that is away from the surface of the body.
- Dermis is the deep layer of the skin.
14. Peripheral
- Extending from main part that shows the location of certain blood vessels. NERVES.
15. Parietal
- Wall of cavity (cavities refers to the empty spaces).

Purpose of Cavity:

- It prevents damages of one structure to another.

- To prevent adhesion

Membrane refers to the thin sheet of tissue.

Pleura refers to the linings in a cavity.

16. Visceral
- Covering of organs within cavity. As in the organ.

The outer layer is called the parietal pleura and attaches to the chest wall. The inner layer is
called the visceral pleura and covers the lungs, blood vessels, nerves, and bronchi

PLANES OF THE BODY

 Planes of the body is the structure plan of body with respect to others. Imaginary lines pass
through it that shows anatomical structures one region to another.

1. Sagittal Plane
- Refers to planes in lengthwise form, Left & Right.

o Midsagittal – equal division between left and right passing the midline.

o Parasagittal – unequal division in a vertical plane that does not pass through the
midline.

2. Frontal Plane
- Coronal; right angle in crosswise form of the body. Dividing body from anterior, to the
posterior.
3. Horizontal
- Transverse; divides the body to superior and inferior.
4. Cross section – 90 degrees in each line, a plane perpendicular to the long axis on organ.
5. Longitudinal section –plane on long axis of organ.

BODY CAVITIES – one way of organizing the principal body cavities are as follows:

Membrane – a thin, soft pliable sheet of tissue that lines a tube or cavity.

1. Dorsal Body Cavity – refers to the posterior part of organ, pertaining to the back.’

a. Cranial Cavity – contains brain, meninges are the membranes that lines the cavity and covers
the brain and spinal cord.
b. Spinal Cavity – Contains spinal cord, meninges are same with cranial cavity.
- Aerenoid Matter and dura matter are farther to CNS (central nervous system), Piya Matter are
the closest to CNS. Aerenoid Matter and Piya Matter are meninges = membranes = tissue that
lines tube or cavity.

2. Ventral Body Cavity is located on the side of abdomen, anterior surface of the body.

a. Thoracic cavity – contains the heart and the lungs. Its membranes are pleural membrane,
which lines the wall of cavity. Part of Mediastinum.
b. Abdominal Cavity – contains liver, stomach, intestines and other organs. Its membranes are
Peritoneum that lines cavity.

3. Pelvic Cavity contains the reproductive organs, urinary organs/ bladder. Its membranes
are peritoneum.

· Female – Uterus

· Male – Prostate Gland

2 kinds of Peritoneum
Parietal Peritoneum – layer of peritoneum that lines wall of abdominal cavity.

Visceral Peritoneum – layer that invest the abdominal organs.

4. Mediastinum is a space/mass of tissue between pleurae of lungs.

Organs in mediastinum: The heart, thymus, gland, esophagus, trachea, lymphatic vessels, except
lungs, and many other large vessels. Under thoracic cavity.

ABDOMINOPLEVIC REGIONS

1. Subcostal line- an upper horizontal line that passes just below the bottom of the rib cage
through the pylorus.
2. Trans tubercular line- a lower horizontal line that joins the iliac crests.
3. Right midclavicular line- drawn through the midpoint of the right clavicle slightly medial to
the right nipple.
4. Left midclavicular line- drawn through the midpoint of the left clavicle slightly medial to left
nipple.

9 regions of the Abdomen

Region of Abdomen Organs - note that some organs are just a part.

Right
Hypochondriac Part of liver, gall bladder, small intestine, ascending colon,
Region transverse colon, and right kidney

Epigastric Region Directly above umbilical region.

Esophagus, stomach, liver, pancreas, small intestine, right and left

kidneys, left and right ureters, spleen, transverse colon, left and
right adinal glands.

Left Hypochondriac Left of epigastric region.

Region
Stomach, tip of liver, part of pancreas, small intestine, transverse
colon, descending colon, left kidney, spleen.

Right Lumbar Right of umbilical region.

Region
Tip of liver, gall bladder (inferior to liver), small intestine, ascending
colon, right kidney.
Umbilical Region Centrally located.

Stomach, pancreas, small intestine, transverse colon, left & right

kidneys, left and right ureters.

Left Lumbar Left of umbilical region.

Region
Small intestine, descending colon, tip of left kidney.
 Right Iliac – Right of hypogastric region.
Inguinal
Small intestine, appendix, cecum, ascending colon

Female: right ovary and right fallopian tube.

Hypogastric Region Directly below of umbilical region.

– Pubic
Small intestine, sigmoid colon, rectum, left and right ureters, urinary
bladder.

Female: left & right ovaries, fallopian tubes

Male: vas deference, seminal vesicle, and prostate gland.

Left Iliac – Inguinal
Located in the left of hypogastric region.

Small intestine, descending colon, sigmoid colon.

Female: left ovary, left fallopian tube.

Abdominopelvic Quadrants

- The location of viscerae is shown easily in this diagram for it is useful in assessing the
abdomen of client.
- It is the other way to view the abdomen by quadrants.

Right Upper Quadrant

Organs: Liver, Gall Bladder (below liver; is storage of bile made by liver), duodenum, head of
pancreas, right adinal glands, upper lower right of kidney, right hepatic flexure of colon, section of
ascending colon, section of transverse colon.

Left Upper Quadrant

Organs: Left lobe of the liver, stomach, spleen, upper lobe of left kidney, pancreas, left adinal gland,
splenic flexure of colon, section of transverse colon, descending colon.

Right Lower Quadrant

Organs: lower lobe of right kidney, cecum, appendix, section of ascending colon, right ovary, right
fallopian tube, right ureter, passage of urine (male, female). Male – right spermatic cord. Female – part
of uterus.

Left Lower quadrant

Organs: lower lobe of left kidney, sigmoid colon, section of descending colon (Colon – Large
intestine). Male – left spermatic duct, left ureter. Female – left ovary, left fallopian tube, left ureter.

Quadrant names are used in locating the site of an:

- Abdominopelvic Tumor
 - Abnormalities located on the abdomen
- Pain like:

RLQ – suspect for appendicitis

RUQ – suspect for gallstone

- Gallstone are cholesterol that forms within the gallbladder or bile duct.
- Gall stone – cholelith – Cholelithiasis – Cholelithiasis or gallstones are hardened deposits of
digestive fluid that can form in your gallbladder.

Regional Terms are descriptive terms for body parts and areas.

Anterior Body Landmarks Location/ Common term

Abdominal Abdomen

Antecubital Anterior/front part of elbow

Antebrachial Forearm

Axillary Armpit

Brachial Arm, Upper arm

Buccal Cheek area

Carpal Wrist

Cervical Neck region

Cranial Head

Digital Fingers and Toes

Femoral Thigh area

Frontal Bone in Head/ Forehead

Inguinal Area where thigh meets the body

Mammary Breast

Nasal Nose

Orbital Eye

Parietal crown of head

Oral Mouth
 Patellar Anterior Knee

Pectoral/ Thoracic Chest Area

Pedal Foot

Perineal Pelvic Floor – In genital

Plantar Sole of Foot

Peroneal Lateral part of leg

Pubic Genital Side region

Sternal Bone, Breastbone area – articulate ribs that connects ribs

Tarsal Ankle region / In step

Temporal Side of the head due to the bone

Umbilical Navel

Volar/ Palmar Palm

The term "cephalic" refers to the head region. It is not specifically categorized as part of the anterior
(front) or posterior (back) because it encompasses the entire head area. However, if we break it down.

Anterior aspect of the cephalic region includes the face, forehead, and eyes.

Posterior aspect of the cephalic region includes the back of the head and the occipital area.

So, "cephalic" can describe both anterior and posterior parts of the head, depending on the context.

Posterior Body Landmarks Location/ Common name

Crural Leg

Deltoid Curve of shoulder formed by large deltoid muscle. It is where

intramuscular injection is performed.

Gluteal Buttocks

Lumbar Back between spinal column, in hips and ribs due to lumbar
bone

Occipital Back of Head, posterior surface of head

Popliteal Back of Knee

Sacral Base of Spine

Scapular Shoulder blade

 sural Posterior surface of leg, calf of leg

Vertebral Area of spine

Nuchal Nape of neck

Descriptive terms for organs

Cardiac Heart

Cutaneous Skin

Gastric Stomach

Hepa Liver

Pulmonary Lungs

Renal Kidney

Thorax Upper part of abdomen enclosed by ribs, containing

heart and lungs.

Neuro Nerves

Hema Blood

Chole Denotes to bile and gallbladder

Costal Refers to ribs

Chromial Point of shoulder

Vertebral Area of the spine

Important Prefixes

1. Anti – against; anti-biotic

2. Bi – Two; Bilateral, binucleic (2 nucleus)

3. Brady – slow; Bradycardia – slow heartrate

4. Cirrh – yellow in color

- Greek root. Liver cirrhosis – permanent damage to liver.

5. Contra – against or opposite; contraceptive, contralateral

6. Crypt – hidden or concealed; cryptorchidism – undescended testes that did not descend in
scrotum.

7. Cyano – blue in color

 - Cyanopia – a visual defect where a person only see objects in blue.
- Cyanosis/cyanotic bluish discoloration of skin.

8. Dys – Painful and difficult

- Dysmenorrhea – severe pain or cramps in lower abdomen during menstruation.

9. Ecto/ Exo – outside

- Ectoderm is the outermost layer of cell in early development; 2nd -8th week of fertilization

10. Hemi – Half

- Hemiplegia – paralysis of one side of the body.

- Hemi-colectomy – colon/ large intestine removal of approximately half of colon

11. Hyper – above, over, excessive; above normal

- Hypertension – increase of blood pressure

- Hyperthermia – increase in temperature

12. Hypo – under, beneath, deficient

- Hypotension – below normal blood pressure

- Hypothermia – below normal temperature

13. Macro – large, great

- Macromastia – abnormally large breast

14. Micro – small; opposite of macro

- Microsomia – abnormal smallness of body

15. Neo – new

- Neonate – new born baby

- Neophilia – tendency to like new things

16. Oligo – small, few

- Oligo menorrhea – scanty or infrequent menstruation; small amount of menstruation

- Oligodactyly – a few fingers.

17. Peri-: Prefix meaning around or about, as in pericardial (around the heart) and periaortic
lymph nodes (lymph nodes around the aorta).

18. Tachy – rapid. Tachycardia – rapid heartrate.

Suffixes

1. Centesis – puncture, usually for drainage.

- Paracentesis – drains fluid in abdomen.
 - Punctured fluid for the purpose of removal of fluid.

2. Ectomize, -Ectomy – “Procedure”, excision or removal of

- Appendicitis – appendectomy – surgical removal of the appendix.

- Cholecystitis – cholecystectomy – surgical removal of gall bladder.

3. Itis – inflammation

- Appendicitis – inflammation of appendix

4. Megally – enlarged

- Cardiomegaly – enlargement of heart

5. Oma – tumor.

- Myoma – tumor benign of muscle tissue

6. Ostomy – creating an opening

- Colostomy – surgically established fistula between the colon and the surface of the abdomen.
- Procedure of making an opening in the abdomen. Artificial anus is made, temporarily or can be
permanently.
- Fistula – an opening on the anterior and posterior part of the abdomen for important purposes.

Cell

All living organisms are made of cell. 75 trillion cells, adult. Smallest living sub-unit. Complex
arrangement of chemicals making different functions. The cell is the basic unit of living structure and
function.

Humans are formed through the union of egg cell and sperm cell forming Zygote. Cell multiplication
follows, cell develops as times passes.

2 types of cells:

1.) Prokaryotic cell- Contain a single strand of nucleic acid.

- Amoeba, bacteria, single cell

- lacks membrane bound nucleus

2) Eukaryotic cell- Contains true nucleus and multiple chromosomes and thread-like structure.
Multicellular.

Chromosomes are thread-like structure facilitating proper cell division and replication. Its main
purpose is to fit nucleus to fit DNA in nucleus.

Characteristics of cell:

- 75 trillion cells for adult human body.

 - 4 elements---- carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen.
- Contains lipids- 40% of dry mass of typical cell, involved in long term.
- Iron, sodium, potassium, chloride, and ions.
- 60% of water, based on a dilute saltwater solution called interstitial fluid. Interstitial fluid is an
excellent solvent that are in between spaces of one cell to another.
- Length ranging from 2 micrometers (1/12000th of an inch) to over 3 feet or more (in nervous
system).

Shapes

Disc-shape – erythrocyte, Red blood cells

Thread-like extension – Nerve Cell

Toothpick pointed at each end – Smooth muscle-wall of hollow organs, stomach, and intestine.

Cube like – Epithelial cells are in the outer surface of an organ and blood vessels also.

Function:

1) Blood cells transport gasses and protect the body from foreign substances.

2) Some cells make hormones to regulate metabolic processes; others are involve in: Producing
enzymes for the digestion of food.

Pancreas – organ pancreas releases hormones such as: insulin and glucagon. Insulin decreases
blood glucose level, releases glucagon. Glucagon increases blood glucose level.

Synthetic human insulin injected is made of bacteria and yeast.

All cells are the same except Red blood cells/erythrocyte for they have no nuclei when they
mature. They eject their nucleus before they mature. This will enable more oxygen to be
transported to blood.

Structures of cells – 3 Main Regions – Cell Parts

Nucleus – near the center part of cell

Cytoplasm – contains many organelles, semi-fluid surrounding nucleus.

Plasma membrane (cell membrane) – located at the wall of cell. Encloses nucleus and cytoplasm that
forms the outer cell membrane.

A. Plasma membrane

- It is made of a double layer phospholipids – cholesterol and proteins with some proteins and
molecules embedded in them. It is the outer part/layer of cell that separates it from its
surrounding environment.
- Semi-permeable that monitors what goes in and out of cell.

Functions of Plasma Membrane:

1. Supporting and retaining the cytoplasm - It supports and retains shape of cytoplasm to prevent the
collapse of cytoplasm.
2. Acts as selective barrier

· Allows nutrients in, water needed, and waste product out.

· Molecules crossing the membrane can go in, some may not. Although, nutrients can cross
without assistance.

· Everything that enters the cell must be through the plasma membrane.

· Water and non-polar molecules (fats/oils, insoluble to water) penetrates by dissolving into the
lipid layer. SOME polar molecule can cross the cell.

Nutrients that goes in: Glucose, Amino Acid, Mineral, Water soluble vitamins.

Waste Products: Lactic acid, Lactose, Hydrogen, Ethanol

Cell in Placenta is only developed when a female is pregnant. It provides nutrients and oxygen
for baby that also removes waste products from baby to mother. Waste is flushed in the upper part of
uterus, attached to umbilical cord. Placenta is attached to upper part of uterus.

How can an element enter the cell membrane even if it is not allowed to?

- Amino acids, Inorganic Salt, organic acids. These 3 binds to protein to enter the cell or
specifically, the cell membrane which then enters the cytoplasm. Protein’s main function is in
helping and carrying selective transport.

Specialization of Plasma Membrane

1. Microvilli
- Tiny-fingerlike projections for absorption.
- Absorption of nutrients, waters, vitamins, and minerals quickly.
- Example, Microvilli in small intestine: helps absorb nutrients into body.

2. Membrane Junction

a. Tight Junction

- Prevents substances to enter extracellular space, or outside its own track.

- Prevents leakages of transport, preventing stray parts of a stream to go anywhere.
- Example, Small intestine tight junction: prevents digestive enzyme (enzyme that breaks down
carbohydrates, fats and proteins) seeping to the blood stream.

b. Desmosome

- In the cell, it is an anchoring junction which prevents cell subjected to mechanical stress.
- It sticks cells together, or adhere that is mostly found in epidermis to avoid damages.

Example: Skin cells prevents from being pulled apart.

c. Gap Junction

- Commonly seen in heart that allows change within chemical molecules that can pass directly
from one cell to another.
- It is the communication between one cell to another of nutrients and ions.
- Ex. Chemical molecules can pass directly from one cell to another.

B. Cytoplasm

The second part of the cell which refers to the fluids mainly within cell composed of a watery solution
of minerals and water that gives cells its shapes. Contains enzymes and organelles – little organs in
cells.

Cell will deflate without it, materials needed within cell cannot pass. It is found outside of nucleus,
inside plasma membrane. It is referred to as “factory area” of the cell for it is where most activities
takes place.

3 Major Elements of Cytoplasm

Cytosol

- Semi-transparent fluid that suspends (makes other elements temporarily operative) the other
elements. Its major component is water.
- Major element of cytoplasm.
- Nutrients that dissolves in this area is salt. It doesn’t contain organelles, just a fluid.

Organelles are the metabolic machinery of cell. Each organelle carries specific functions.

a. Membrane bound organelle

- Some synthesize protein – process of making protein in simplest form. Forming complex
substance by combining simple substance.
- Others package proteins – transports and packages protein.

b. Non membrane organelles – Forms and framework of cytoskeleton that reinforces

shape

1. Microtubules- is involved in cell division, cell movement, and transport.

2. Microfilaments- Involved in cell movement, actin filament, cells of RBC, kidney cells,
neurons, and sperm cells.

Inclusion

Chemical substance that may or may not be present depending on the type of cell. It stores
nutrients mostly. Glycogen, lipids, pigment – melanin – skin and hair.

Ex. Pigments such as melanin.

Cytoplasmic organelles – little organs

 Suspended or dispersed in cytoplasm. Specialized cellular compartment performing functions
to maintain life of a cell.

1. Ribosome

Composed of RNA (Ribosomal RNA and protein). This is tiny, round, dark granules made of
proteins. They synthesize protein from amino acid using RNA as template for metabolism.

It is dispersed randomly throughout cytoplasm (some to membrane), or attached to surface or

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum. It is linked together in chains called polyribosome/ polysomes that
synthesizes proteins to form complex substance by combining.

2. Endoplasmic reticulum

Organelle composed of a system of interconnecting membranous tubules and vesicles along which
protein is synthesized in the cytoplasm.

Provides networks of channels for carrying substances- proteins. Interconnects tubules and vesicles –
small sac of fluid. That serves as many circulatory system for it provides network carrying substance –
proteins.

2 types of endoplasmic reticulum

Rough endoplasmic reticulum

It is with RIBOSOME. Abundant in cells; export and synthesize protein products for use
outside the cell.

Ex. Pancreas cells produce enzymes which are delivered to small intestine.

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

It lacks RIBOSOME/NO RIBOSOME ATTACHED. It is smooth for it has no/lacks ribosome on the
cytoplasmic surface. Functions in cholesterol synthesis and breakdown, fat metabolism, drugs
detoxification (steroid hormones)

Ex. Liver cells which detoxify drugs.

3. Golgi apparatus/Golgi Complex

Stacks of flattened membranous sac in which lipids and proteins are modified. Function is
synthesized and export or transport of proteins to specific locations.

Synthesizes carbohydrates, secretes materials from cell. Receives from endoplasmic reticulum.

4. Lysosomes - inside cytoplasm

Membrane bags containing powerful digestive enzymes. Cell demolitions site. Contains different
enzymes that can breakdown polysaccharides, proteins; nucleic acids; some lipids.

One type of secretory vesicle which is a sac that has fluid on the inside. Membrane bags containing
powerful digestive enzymes. It is referred to as cell demolition site or garbage disposal of the cell for it
contains different enzymes. That breaks polysaccharides, proteins, nucleic acids, and some lipids.
DESTROYS DAMAGED CELLS, SUICIDE BAGS
- Lysosome in WBC – swallow bacteria, engulfs bacteria (phagocytosis).

5. Peroxisomes

Membranous sacs that are abundant in liver and kidney cells and detoxify a number of harmful
or poisonous substances.

Membrane bound nucleus containing 50 enzymes. Detoxifies alcohol and poisonous food.
Similar structure to lysosome, but smaller in size.

6. Mitochondria

“Power House of the Cell” that has double membrane, outer and inner membrane. It is the site of ATP
production needed for cellular respiration- break down of foo. Inner membrane has a shell-like
structure called cristae. Involve in cellular respiration in the form of ATP – chemical from cell that
produces energy for muscular energy and other forms of energy needed in body.

ATP is used to produce energy for a variety of energy required activities. This organelle convert
energy that can be used for energy activities.

7. Cytoskeleton

Interconnected system of bundled fibers, slender threads and lattices. The interconnection of the
system of the cell appearing like a thread/strand. That extends from plasma membrane and nucleus
which are made up of microtubules. It is referred to as the internal organization of cell and for it to be
moved – cytoskeleton.

Consists of the:

1) microfilaments- provide structural support, maintain the shape of cell and permit contraction.

2) microtubules- Involved of movement of organelles within the cell, chromosomes during cell
division, cell extension. Microtubules are the major component of cytoskeleton in cell division, cell
motility, intracellular transport, and maintenance of a cell’s shape.

8. Centrosomes/ Centrioles

Paired of centrioles and a small cluster of microtubules lying at the right angle to each other.

It is involved in movement of chromosomes during mitosis. Located in cytoplasm, near nucleus which
are tube-like structure that aid in cell division, made up of microtubules

During cell division, it directs the formation of the mitotic spindle. Number of centrosomes are equal
to number of chromosomes. Mitotic spindle equally divides chromosomes of genetical material in cell.

* Centrosomes - located on the cytoplasm near the nucleus, present within the chromosome that
connects the chromatins. Attachment site of the spindle fiber. Tube like structures.

Dissolved in Cytoplasm (major part of cell containing organelles)

 1. Gases – Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide. Carbon dioxide carried by RBC/erythrocytes from lungs
to be oxygenized then to heart for it to be pumped. Cycle of converting CO2 waste product as
oxygen again.
2. Cellular Waste – urea, lactic acid, acetic acid, CO2, ammonia
3. Building block molecules – amino Acids
4. Food molecules – Glucose
5. Ions – Potassium and Sodium
6. Proteins and RNA – occurs in ribosome – little organ in cytoplasm
7. Organelles of the cells – ribosomes, mitochondria, and other organelles
8. ATP – energy carrying molecules
9. Hormones, Drugs and Toxins

C. NUCLEUS

“Headquarters” or “Control center” that contains the genetic code DNA which are the
instructions needed for the building of proteins. Except RBC, every cell has a nucleus, bounded by 2
layer nuclear membrane. This part is the storage of genetic material (RNA/DNA) and cellular
activities of cell.

GENETIC MATERIAL:

DNA – carrier of genetic information in living cells that are the auto-reproducing component of
chromosomes. It is the hereditary material found in nucleus of human cells.

RNA – act as a messenger, messenger carrying instructions from DNA for controlling the synthesis of
protein.

Chromosomes – made up of protein, a single molecule of DNA. Passes from parents to offspring
which contains specific structure within.

Proteins carry out function such as transport, chemical reaction, structural support, cell
communication and others.

3 structures of Nucleus

1. Nuclear Membrane

Double membrane that bounds, encloses, and surrounds nucleus that has the same structure
like, plasma membrane. Permeable membrane – anything can go in for it contains larger structure
pores.

Nucleoplasm – jelly-like fluid enclosing nuclear membrane

2. Nucleoli/Nucleolus

Sites where ribosome are assembled. Forms a type of RNA called ribosomal RNA, which will be a
part of ribosomes. DNA, RNA and Proteins is what is made of.

3. Chromatin
DNA proteins in a none dividing cell forms, a loose network of bumpy threads. Organizes DNA and
practices. When a cell is divided to 2 daughter cells, chromatin coils and condenses – thick structure,
more dense – forming structure.

Other Cell Structures/Extension of the Cell

1. Cilia

Hair like projections formed by centrioles lying on the free border of the cell that appears shorter than
flagella. It sweeps structure across cell.

EX. Ciliated cell lining of respiratory system

2. Flagella/Flagellum

Single long whip like projections, formed by the centrioles that moved cells. Provides movement for
sperm cell to move, only sperm cell.

EX. The tail of the sperm cell

Cell Cycle and Mitosis – humans came from one original cell, the union of sperm and egg cell which
then forms cytoplasm, organelles and nucleus.
Cell cycle phases of cell reproducing 2 or 4 daughter cells

INTERPHASE

This is the phase that prepares the cell for division which is the longest phase cycle in divisions.
ONLY PREPARES CELL FROM CELL DIVISION.

This is the longest phase in the cell cycle between divisions. Resting phase – although it is the resting
phase, it is the living stage of cells in which cell contains nutrients and reads DNA. It carries all their
usual functions in between cell divisions. Throughout the cell division, the interphase perform its
function.

CELL DIVISION – to which cell reproduces itself. Interphase then cell division which can be –
cytokinesis and mitosis.

Following interphase, cell division occurs in two main steps: cytokinesis and mitosis.

Mitosis- Normal series of phases in cell division.

Each cell has 23X and Y chromosomes

CHROMOSOMES- carry the hereditary factors, and responsible for the determination of sex.

MITOSIS

Normal series of phase in cell division which is a continuous process producing 2 identical genetical
cell. Nucleus divides to 2 genetically identical cell.

Except RBC. WBC, gametes

25 million cell divisions occur every second

Purpose of Mitosis: Growth, Cell repair, Cell Replacement

PHASES OF MITOSIS (PMATC)

PROPHASE

The sister chromatids condense to become thicker and visible when viewed to the microscope.
Nuclear envelope and nucleolus disperse, spindle forms.

METAPHASE

The chromosomes line up midway between the centrioles. Split to 2 daughter cells, cell
divides. Chromosomes line-up midway between centrioles, replicated chromosome line midway.

ANAPHASE

The centromeres of each chromosome are pulled by the spindle fibers toward the ends of the
cell. Centrosomes are pulled by spindle fiber, at the edge of cell. Separates duplicated genetic material.

TELOPHASE

New nuclei begin to form around the Chromosome at each end of the cell. New nuclei forms
around nucleus. Sister chromatids reach opposite posts. Marks the end of mitosis, and start of
cytokinesis.

CYTOKINESIS – Completes the process of cell division

The cytoplasm of the cell divides into 2 new cells, daughter cells. The cytoplasm divides when a
groove called the cleavage furrow forms through the middle of the parent cells. The cleavage
furrow deepens until the parent cells pinches into two new cells.

Mitosis and Cytokinesis – completes cell mitotic spindle

MEIOSIS
 - produces gametes or reproduction. End result is always 4 daughter cells. Haploid. half from
parents, 23=23.
- Produce the gametes, or this is reproduce sexually. This is the type of cell required for sexual
reproduction. End result is four daughter cells. Diploid number of chromosomes (46)
- haploid number of chromosomes (23).

2 types of Meiosis – Gametogenesis=sperm and egg cell reproduction:

Spermatogenesis

Takes place in the testes – site from sperm reproduction. That only happens to male; Process of
meiosis for egg cell formation. Semifirostubules contains Spermatogonia. Stem cells produces new
stem cells and Spermatogonia. Which then produces 2 primary spermatocyte. Producing two each of 4
mature sperm cells.

Spermatogonia is what the root sperm/ stem cell is called.

Oogenesis

Begins in the ovaries, containing oogenium – stem cell. It only takes place in female; Process
of meiosis for egg cell formation. 3 polar bodies will deteriorate, for it has no functions, one mature
ovum only,
Physiology of Cell

Cell exchange materials such as food and wastes within its environment.

- Water can go in and out freely from the cell.

- Proteins, carbohydrates, and some ions cannot.
- Cell membrane is semi permeable.

Diffusion

1) SIMPLE DIFFUSION

Movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration.

EX. Perfume inside a bottle evaporates and evenly distributed in a room.

CONCENTRATION GRADIENT- difference between the Concentrations of molecules in one

area adjacent to another.

· FACILITATED DIFFUSION- larger molecules, require assistance to pass through the protein
channels of plasma membrane.

EX. Amino acid; which is essential for cell function binds with protein in the plasma membrane to
form a new compound that is soluble in lipids.

2) OSMOSIS -high concentration of water to low concentration of water.

EX. A container of water divided by a semi permeable membrane; sugar molecules are dissolve to the
left side, right side it’s pure water.
TYPE OF SOLUTIONS

A. Hypertonic solution - Concentrations of solutes outside is higher than the concentration inside
the cell.

EX. Cell (normally has much water) --------if the environment of cell (lack water or no water at all)
-----die.

B. Hypotonic solution - The flow of water into the cell causes the cell to swell.

EX. Distilled water- If human cell is dissolve to distilled water, the cell is going burst
because of osmosis

C. Isotonic solution - concentration of solute equals the concentration of solute inside the cell.

EX. 5% of glucose, 0.9% Na Cl----helps replenish fluids in your cell without causing osmosis.

Effects of solute concentration on human RBC