Rocks

चट्‌
टान
•Rocks are an aggregate of one or more minerals held together by chemical bonds.
•Feldspar and quartz are the most common minerals found in rocks.
•The scientific study of rocks is called petrology.
•Based on the mode of formation three major groups of rocks are defined: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic.

(1) The silicate minerals

The most outstanding rock forming silicate mineral groups are quartz, feldspar, and ferromagnesium .
• Quartz is com posed o f two elements viz. sillicon and oxygen
• Feldspar– Alumina + Silica
• When silicon and oxygen combine with iron and magnesium , ferromagnesium minerals are formed
(2) Carbonate group of minerals is very much succeptible to chemical weathering and erosion in humid areas.
(3) Sulphide minerals
(4) Metallic elements
1. Igneous Rocks or Primary Rocks
•Rocks formed out of solidification of magma (molten rock below the surface) and lava (molten
rock above the surface) and are known as igneous or primary rocks.
•Having their origin under conditions of high temperatures the igneous rocks are unfossiliferous.
•Granite, gabbro, basalt, are some of the examples of igneous rocks.
•There are three types of igneous rocks based on place and time taken in cooling of the
molten matter, plutonic rocks, volcanic rocks and intermediate rocks.
•There are two types of rocks based on the presence of acid-forming radical, silicon, acidic
rocks and basic rocks.
आग्नेय चट्‌टानों की मख्
ु य विशेषतायें हैं:
(i) यह पिघले मैग्मा (लावा) के ठं डे होने से बनती हैं ।
(ii) इनमें सामान्यत: िरतें नह ं होती ।
(iii) इनमें जीवाश्म नह ं होते ।
(iv) यह कठोर होती हैं और इनमें से िानी नह ं छनता ।
(v) यह रवेदार (Granular) होती हैं और इनमें क्रिस्टल (Crystal) होते हैं ।
(vi) इनका अिक्षय प्राय: भौततक प्रक्रिया के द्वारा होता है ।
(vii) आग्नेय चट्‌टानों का सम्बंध ज्वालामखु ियों से होता है ।
(viii) इनमें सससलकेट ितनज होता है ।
(ix) अधधकतर धात्ववक ितनज (लोहा, मैंगनीज, जस्ता, सोना, चााँद ) इन चट्‌टानों में िाये जाते हैं ।
Classification of Igneous Rock

[Link] the basis of amount of Silica (It may be pointed out that silica content is not a measure of
acidity)
i) Acidic igneous rocks having more silica, e.g. granites
• silica content between 65 to 85 per cent.
• The average density varies from 2.75 to 2.8.
(ii) Basic igneous rocks having lower amount o f silica, e.g. gabbro
• contain silica content between 45 to 60 per cent.
• Their average density ranges from 2.8 to 3.0.
[Link] the basis of the chemistry and mineralogical composition
(i) Felsic igneous rocks composed of the dominant minerals of the light group such as quartz
and feldspar having rich content of silica.
(ii) Mafic igneous rocks com posed of the dominant mineral of dark group such as pyroxenes,
amphiboles and olivines, all of which have rich contents of magnesium and iron.
(iii) Ultramafic igneous rocks are characterised by the abundance of pyroxenes and olivine
minerals, examples, periodotite (rich in pyroxene and olivine), dunite (rich in olivine) etc.
(iv) Porphyritic igneous rocks (mix-grained igneous rocks).
(3) The igneous rocks are also classified on the basis of texture of grains into 5 major groups—
(i) Pegmatitic igneous rocks (very coarse grained igneous rocks) include very large crystals
several metres across. Examples, granites.
(ii) Phaneritic igneous rocks (coarse grained igneous rocks).
(iii) Aphanitic igneous rocks (fine grained igneous rocks).
(iv) Glassy igneous rocks (without grains of any size).
Intrusive igneous rocks (Plutonic rocks)
•If magma cools slowly at great depths, mineral grains formed in the rocks may be very large.
•Such rocks are called intrusive rocks or plutonic rocks (e.g. Granite).
•These rocks appear on the surface only after being uplifted and denuded.
• W hen the magma cooled and solidified very deep within the earth, the resultant rocks become plutonic but when
the magmas are cooled just below the earth's surface, the rocks are called as hypabyssal igneous rocks.

Extrusive igneous rocks (Lava or Volcanic rocks)

•Sudden cooling of magma just below the surface or lava above the surface results in small and smooth grains in
rocks as rapid cooling prevents crystallisation, as a result, such rocks are fine-grained.
•Such rocks are called extrusive rocks or volcanic rocks (e.g. Basalt).
•The Deccan traps in the Indian peninsular region is of basaltic origin.
•Basic rocks contain a greater proportion of basic oxides, e.g. of iron, aluminium or magnesium, and are thus denser
and darker in colour.
Extrusive igneous rocks are further divided into two major sub-catcgories on the basis o f the nature o f the
appearance of lavas on the earth's surface e.g.
(i) Explosive Type (विस्फोटक उद्‌गार से विवमित)
• The igneous rocks formed due to mixture of volcanic materials ejected during explosive type o f violent volcanic
eruptions are called explosive type o f extrusive igneous rocks.
• Volcanic materials include ‘bombs’ (big fragments of rocks), lapilli’ (fragments of the size of a peas) and volcanic
dusts and ashes.
• Fine volcanic materials, when deposited in aquatic condition, are called ‘tuffs’.
• The mixture o f larger and smaller particles after deposition is called ‘breccia’ or ‘agglomerate.’

(ii) Quiet Type (क्िाइट प्रकार की आग्िेय चट्‌टािें )

• The appearance of lavas through minor cracks and openings on the earth's surface is called ‘lava flow ’.
• These lavas after being cooled and solidified form basaltic igneous rocks.
• Flood basalts resulting from several episodes of lava flow during fissure flow s of volcanic eruption form extensive
‘lava-plateau ’ and ‘lava-plains’ wherein several layers o f basalts are deposited one upon another.
(A) Batholiths
• These are long, irregular and undulating forms of solidified intruded magmas.
• They are usually dome-shaped and their side walls are very steep, almost vertical.
• The upper portion of batholiths are seen when the superincumbent cover is removed due to continued denudation
but their bases are never seen because they are buried deep within the earth.
• Chotanagpur plateau of India mainly Ranchi plateau where such batholithic dom es are called as Ranchi
Batholiths.

(B) Laccoliths
• The word laccolith has been derived from German word, laccos’ meaning thereby ‘lithos’ or rocks.
• Laccoliths are formed due to injection (intrusion) of magmas along the bedding planes of horizontally bedded
sendimentary rocks.
• Laccoliths are of mushroom shape having convex summital form.
(C) Phacoliths
• These are formed due to injection of magma along the anticlines and synclines in the regions of folded mountains.

(D) Lapoliths
• The word lopolith has been derived from Germ an word ‘lopas’ meaning thereby a shallow basin or bowl shape
body.
• When magma is injected and solidified in a concave shallow basin whose central part is sagged downward, the
resultant form of solidified magma is called a lopolith.

(E) Sills
• The word ‘sills’ has been derived from an Anglo-Saxon word ‘syl’ meaning thereby a ledge.
• The sills are usually parallel to the bedding planes of sedimentary rocks.
• In fact, sills are formed due to injection and solidification of magmas between the bedding planes of sedimentary
rocks.
• Thick beds of magma are called sills whereas thin beds of magma are term ed as ‘sheets’.
(F) Dykes
• It represent wall-like formation of solidify magma.
• These are mostly perpendicular to the beds of sedimentary rocks.
• A well defined dyke is observable across the palaeochannel and valley o f the Narmada river near Dhunwadhar
Falls (Bheraghat) near Jabalpur city.
 Important Igneous Rocks
GRANITES BASALT
• Intrusive • Extrusive
• Coarse grained • Very fine – grained
• Feldspar + quartz + mica • Feldspar + Augite + olivine
• Acidic rock (Silica– 65%- • Silica –45%-65%
85%) • Dark color – abundance of
• Pink to yellow to red iron
Igneous Rocks And Landforms
[Link] –asymmetrical , & one steep and one gentle
Hogbacks – steep slope
[Link] -- hill having flat & regular top surfaces but very steep slopes (Pats OR Patland ,
Jharkhand)
Buttes – when mesas reduced in height
[Link](Castle Koppie / Kopje) – large free standing rock outcrop that rises abruptly from the
surrounding
Sedimentary Rocks
• Sedimentum – settling down
• Stratified / Layered rocks (exception – loess)
• 75% of the surface area of the globe is covered by sedimentary rocks (25%--Igneous + Metamorphic)
• Only 5% of the composition of the crust (95% -- Igneous + metamorphic)
• Contain fossils
• Bedding Plane – connecting plane b/w two consecutive beds or layers of sedimentary rocks
• Sedimentary units in the sedimentary rocks having a thickness of greater then 1cm are called BEDS.
• The connecting plane between two consecutive beds or layers of sedimentary rocks is called ‘bedding
plane’
• The uniformity of two beds along a bedding plane is called conformity (i.e. when beds are similar in
all respect).
• When two consecutive beds are not uniform or conform al, the structure is called unconformity.
• There are several types of unconformity e.g.
(i) Non-conformity (where sedimentary rocks succeed igneous or metamorphic rocks),
(ii) Angular unconformity (where horizontal sedimentary beds are deposited over previously folded or
tilted strata),
(iii) Disconformity (where two conformable beds are separated by mere changes of sediment type),
(iv) Paraconformity (where two sets of conform able beds are separated by same types of sediments) etc.
• Soft muds and alluvia deposited by the rivers during flood period develop cracks when baked in the sun.
These cracks are generally of polygonal shapes. Such cracks are called as mud cracks or sun cracks
अिसादी अथिा परतदार चट्‌टान
(i) अवसाद चट्‌टानों में िरतें होती हैं ।
(ii) अवसाद चट्‌टानों की िरतें क्षैततज अथवा ततरछी हो सकती हैं ।
(iii) अवसाद चट्‌टानों में जैपवक एवं अजैपवक िदाथथ होते हैं ।
(iv) अवसाद चट्‌टानें सामान्यत: सागरों, झीलों, नददयों तथा सागर तटों िर िरत-दर-िरत तनसमथत होती हैं
(v) अवसाद चट्‌टानों में पवसभन्न आकार के तछद्र होते हैं ।
(vi) अवसाद चट्‌टानों में िानी सरलतािव
ू क
थ छन जाता है ।
(vii) अवसाद चट्‌टानों में जीवाश्म (fossils) िाये जाते हैं ।
(viii) अवसाद चट्‌टानों के कण पवसभन्न आकार के होते हैं ।
(ix) जलोढ़ अवसाद चट्‌टानों के सि
ू ने िर दरारें िड़ जाती हैं ।
Sun/ Mud Cracks--
Conformity– uniformity of two beds along a bedding plane
Unconformity विषम विन्यास – when two consecutive beds are not uniform ,
विषम विन्यास अपरदन की सतह है जो दो संस्तरों को विभावजत करती है
1. Non-conformity– sedimentary rocks succeed igneous or metamorphic rocks
2. Angular unconformity– where horizontal sedimentary beds are deposited over previously folded or tilted rocks
3. Disconformity – where two conformable beds are separated by mere changes of sedimentary types
4. Paraconformity – planes above and below are parallel
संस्तरण-तल
[Link] the basis of the nature of sediments
A)Mechanically formed/Clastic rocks(याांविक वियाओ ां द्वारा विवमित
अथिा चट्टाि चूर्ि से विवमित)
i)Sandstones बलआ ु पत्थर(very coarse sand to very fine sand)
ii)Conglomerates(sand + pebbles)
iii)Clay rock विकनी-वमट्‌टी
iv)Shale(clay + silt) शैल
v)Loess
B)Chemically formed (रासायविक तत्िों द्वारा विवमित)
i)Gypseum ii)Salt rocks
C)Organically formed (जैविक तत्िों द्वारा विवमित)
i)Limestones ii)Dolomite iii)Coals iv)Peats
[Link] the basis of transporting agents
A)Argillaceous / Aqueous Rocks जलज चट्‌टानें
i)Marine rocks—ocean and seas
ii)Lacustrine rocks– lake environment
iii)Riverine Rocks—riverine environment
B)Aeolian Sedimentary Rocks िायुननर्मित चट्‌टानें
i)Loess
C)Glacial Sedimentary Rocks हहमानी-ननर्मित परतदार चट्‌टान
i)Till ii)Moraines दहमोढ़
Mechanically Formed Sedimentary Rocks
(1) Sandstones— Sandstones are formed mostly due to deposition, cementation and consolidation of sand grains.
On the basis of textural and mineralogical characteristics sandstones are classified into
a. Quartz arenites (arenite from Latin word arena, meaning thereby sand) composed entirely of quartz grains,
b. Arkose sandstones (feldspar being the dominant mineral),
c. Lithic arenites (composed of fine-grained rock fragments, mostly derived from shales, slates, schists and
volcanic rocks) and
d. Graywacke sandstones (composed of quartz, feldspar and rock fragments surrounded by a fine-grained clay

(2) Conglomerates— Conglomerates are formed due to cementation and consolidation of pebbles of various sizes
together with sands.
• ‘The term conglomerate is applied to cemented fragmental rocks containing rounded fragments such as pebbles
and boulders; if the fragments are angular or sub angular, the rock is called breccia’
(3) Clay Rock and Shale— Clay rocks are formed due to deposition and cementation of fine sediments.
• The rocks formed of the sediments having the grain size of 0.03 mm to 0.004 mm are called silts whereas clays are
formed when the sediments of the grain size of 0.004 mm to 0.00012 mm are cemented and consolidated.

िासशथवक दहमोढ़

अंतस्थ मध्यस्थ
दहमोढ़ दहमोढ़
Metamorphic rocks
• Changed either in form or composition without disintegration through temp. and pressure
• Metamorphose – change in form
• Re-metamorphism --- when already formed metamorphic rocks are again metamorphosed
रूपांतररत या कायांतररत चटानें
रूपांतररत या कायांतररत चटानें
• उच्च ताि, दाब, रासायतनक क्रियाओं आदद के प्रभाव के कारण आग्नेय एवं अवसाद चटटानों के रूि में िररवतथन से रूिांतररत
अथवा कायांतररत चटटानों का तनमाथण होता है ।
• कभी-कभी रूिांतररत चटटानों का भी क्रिर से रूिांतरण हो जाता है । इस क्रिया को िन
ु ः रूिांतरण कहा जाता है ।
• इन चटटानों में गण
ु , रं ग, ितनज, संरचना, रवा, घनवव, कठोरता आदद नए ससरे से बनते हैं।
कायाांतररत चट्‌टािों की मुख्य विशेषताए:ां
(i) कायांतररत िट्‌टानों में भार तथा तापमान के कारण इनके भौवतक एिं रसायवनक तत्िों में पररिततन आ जाता है ।
(ii) कुछ िट्‌टानें पररिवततत होकर पहले से अविक कठोर हो जाती हैं ।
(iii) कायांतररत िट्‌टानों में जीिाश्म नष्ट हो जाते हैं ।
(iv) कुछ कायांतररत िट्‌टानों में पपवियों पि जाती हैं ।
(v) बहुत-सी कायांतररत िट्‌टानों में पानी नहीं छन पाता, जैस-े संगमरमर एिं स्लेट ।
(vi) बहुत-सी कायांतररत िट्‌टानें दानेदार होती हैं, जैस-े क्िाटतज तथा फे ल्सस्पार ।
(vii) बहुत-सी कायांतररत िट्‌टानें संस्तरण-तल (Bedding Plane) के सहारे िटक जाती हैं ।

Physical Metamorphism – textural changes

Chemical Metamorphism – chemical composition changes
Agents Of Metamorphism:
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
Types Of Metamorphism
[Link] the basis of nature of agents
i)Thermal Metamorphism(heat)
ii)Dynamic Metamorphism(pressure)
iii)Hydro-metamorphism(hydro-static pressure)
iv)Hydro-Thermal Metamorphism(water + heat)

[Link] the basis of place or area

i)Contact metamorphism(localized in area)
ii)Regional metamorphism(involving larger area)
[Link] Classification
i) Contact or thermal metamorphism (when rocks come in contact with intruding magma)
• Also called as Thermal metamorphism
• Limestone into Marble
ii) Dynamic and regional metamorphism
iii) Hydro-metamorphism(due to hydrological factors)
iv) Hydro-thermal metamorphism(weight and pressure of water mass and chemically active hot gases and water
vapour)
Classification Of Metamorphic Rocks
Meta-Sedimentary/Para- Meta-igneous /Ortho-metamorphic
Metamorphic rocks rocks
आग्नेय चटटानों के रूपांतरण से बनी शैलें
अिसादी चटटानों के रूपांतरण
से बनी शैलें
• Limestone –Marble • Granite – Gneiss
• Sandstone -- Quartzite • Gabbro -- Serpantine
• Shales & Clay – Slate
• Conglomerate – Gneiss रूपांतररत िट्टानों का पनु ः रूपांतररत िट्टानों में पररिवततत
होना
• Shale – Mica -- Schist • स्लेट (Slate) – वशष्ट (Schist)
• वशष्ट (Schist) – फायलाइट (Phyllite)