ACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Soladevanahalli, Bengaluru – 560107
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
WATER CONSERVATION AND RAINWATER HARVESTING
(BCV654A)
Dr. Gautam
Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering,
Acharya Institute of Technology
Soladevanahalli, Bengaluru – 560107
2024-25
ACHARYA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
COs, POs, PEOs, PSOs
I. COURSE OUTCOMES (COS)
CO1: Understand the significance of water, its issues & current status.
CO2: Acquire knowledge on principles of water harvesting & challenges.
CO3: Calculate and prepare design rain harvesting structures.
CO4: Acquire knowledge regarding water pollution and conservation in agricultural and
industrial sectors
CO5: Identify various geophysical methods, water management laws, and sustainability
assessment process
II. PROGRAM OUTCOMES (POS)
1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering
fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering
problems.
2. Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complex
engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of mathematics,
natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
3. Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems and
design system components or processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate
consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and environmental
considerations.
4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and research
methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and synthesis of
the information to provide valid conclusions.
5. Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and modern
engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex engineering activities
with an understanding of the limitations.
6. The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to assess
societal, health, safety, legal, and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities relevant to
the professional engineering practice.
7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of professional engineering solutions
in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and need for
sustainable development.
8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and
norms of the engineering practice.
9. Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or leader
in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the
engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and write
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effective reports and design documentation, make effective presentations, and give and receive
clear instructions.
11. Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the
engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member and
leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.
12. Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to engage
in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological change.
III. PROGRAM EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES (PEOS)
PEO 1: Graduates will be able to conceptualize, analyze, design, and propose a
feasible solution to Civil Engineering problems by applying basic principles of
Mathematics, Science, Engineering, Sustainable development, and Socio-Eco-
friendly environment.
PEO 2: Graduates will inculcate with necessary professional skills, ethics,
commitment, communication, skills, leadership quality, and holistic personality traits
to become efficient and effective engineers.
PEO 3: Graduates will be able to work as a team in intra and interdisciplinary
endeavors for the development of new ideas and products for the betterment of society
by pursuing career paths in teaching, research, and entrepreneurship.
PEO 4: Graduates will be able to face the challenges of the world economic order by
incorporating expertise involving modern tools and techniques in the field of
infrastructural development.
IV. PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOME (PSOS)
PSO1. Graduates of this programme will acquire proficiency to enable them to apply
fundamental technical knowledge and skills to find innovative solutions for challenges and
problems in various domains of Civil Engineering
PSO2. Graduates will be able to practice Civil Engineering profession in an ethical manner, as
an individual or a team member to conceptualize and implement eco-friendly sustainable
technologies for the benefit of mankind.
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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
V. CO-PO -PSO Mapping
COs Program Outcomes PSO
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2
CO 1 2 2 3 1 2 1 1 2
CO 2 1 2 3 2 1 1 1 2 2 2
CO 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 3 2
CO 4 2 1 2 3 2 1 2 2 2
CO 5 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 2
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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
Environmental Studies
Course Code BCV654A Semester VI
MODULE – 02: Elementary Knowledge of Groundwater Table
SYLLABUS CONTENT
General aquifer. Water quality and its impact on human beings. Water harvesting: need, principles of water
harvesting, general water harvesting methods- rainwater harvesting- methods, classes, benefits, approach,
rooftop rainwater harvesting, subsurface barriers/dykes, farm ponding, etc. mostly used in rural areas
Aquifer
• An aquifer is an underground layer of water-bearing permeable rock or unconsolidated materials
(gravel, sand, or silt) from which groundwater can be extracted using a water well.
• The study of water flow in aquifers and the characterization of aquifers is called hydrogeology.
• An artesian well is a well that taps into a confined aquifer containing groundwater under pressure.
Because of this pressure, water naturally rises to the surface without the need for pumping.
• Aquifers are classified as:
• Unconfined aquifer
• Confined aquifer
• Perched aquifers
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What is a confining layer(aquitard)?
Geological material through which significant quantities of water can not move, located below unconfined
aquifers, above and below confined aquifers. It is also known as a confining bed.
Unconfined Aquifer
An unconfined aquifer is a water-bearing layer that has no impermeable layer above it, meaning it is open to
direct recharge from the surface.
• It is subjected to no pressure—water levels in wells match the water table.
• More vulnerable to contamination from surface pollutants (e.g., pesticides, waste).
• Recharge happens quickly from rainfall, rivers, or lakes.
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Confined Aquifer
• A confined aquifer is a water-bearing layer of rock or sediment that is trapped between two
impermeable layers (such as clay or dense rock).
• These impermeable layers prevent water from easily entering or leaving the aquifer.
• Water is under pressure, which can cause it to rise when tapped by a well (sometimes even flowing
naturally, forming an artesian well).
• Less susceptible to surface contamination because it is protected by impermeable layers.
• Recharge (water replenishment) happens slowly and usually from a distant source where the aquifer
is exposed.
• The piezometric surface is the height to which water would naturally rise in a well due to the
pressure in a confined aquifer.
• If the wellhead is below this level → Flowing artesian well (water flows out naturally).
• If the wellhead is above this level → Non-flowing artesian well (water rises but needs pumping).
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Difference between flowing and non-flowing artesian well
Water table well
• A water table well is a well that taps into an unconfined aquifer, meaning it draws water directly from
the water table (the upper level of groundwater).
• These wells are also called shallow wells because they are typically not very deep.
• Accesses an unconfined aquifer (no impermeable layer above).
• Water level in the well matches the water table.
• Depth varies depending on seasonal changes in the water table.
• More vulnerable to contamination because surface pollutants can seep into the unconfined aquifer.
• Requires a pump to lift water to the surface.
Perched Aquifer
• A perched aquifer is a small, localized groundwater body that sits above the main water table,
separated by an impermeable layer (aquitard).
• It occurs when water accumulates on top of this layer, forming a "perched" water table.
• Temporary and often seasonal, depending on rainfall
• Created by an aquitard (such as clay) that blocks water infiltration.
• It supplies small wells or springs but is not a reliable long-term water source.
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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
Water Quality and Its Impact on Human Beings
• Water quality refers to water's physical, chemical, and biological characteristics that determine its
suitability for drinking, agriculture, industry, and ecological health.
• Safe water is essential for human survival, but poor water quality can cause serious health problems,
environmental degradation, and economic losses.
• Water quality parameters are classified into:
• Physical Parameters
• Chemical Parameters
• Biological Parameters
Physical Parameters
1. Turbidity –
• Cloudiness caused by suspended particles like soil, silt, and organic matter.
• High turbidity reduces light penetration, affecting aquatic life.
• Can carry bacteria and pathogens.
2. Temperature –
• Influences chemical reactions, biological processes, and oxygen levels.
• Warmer water holds less oxygen, affecting aquatic organisms.
3. Color, Odor, and Taste –
• Indicates contamination.
• Brown or red color may indicate iron contamination.
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• Foul odor can suggest bacterial growth or sewage contamination
Chemical Parameters
1. pH Level
• Measures acidity or alkalinity (scale of 0-14; ideal drinking water pH is 6.5-8.5).
• Low pH (acidic): Corrosive, dissolves metals.
• High pH (alkaline): Causes scaling in pipes, and affects taste.
2. Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
• It is an essential parameter for aquatic life and decomposition of organic matter.
• Low DO leads to dead zones where fish cannot survive.
3. Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) – Includes minerals, salts, and metals
High TDS (>500 mg/L) affects taste and may contain harmful contaminants.
4. Hardness (Calcium & Magnesium Content)
Causes scaling in pipes but is not harmful to health.
Soft water (<75 mg/L) may cause corrosion.
Hard water (>200 mg/L) can cause kidney stones.
5. Heavy Metals (Lead, Mercury, Arsenic, Cadmium, etc.)
• Lead (Pb): Causes brain damage, especially in children.
• Mercury (Hg): Affects the nervous system and kidneys.
• Arsenic (As): Long-term exposure leads to cancer and skin diseases.
6. Nitrates & Phosphates –
• Found in fertilizers, sewage, and industrial waste.
• Excess nitrates in drinking water cause "blue baby syndrome", reducing oxygen supply in
infants.
7. Salinity (Salt Content) – High salt levels make water undrinkable and damage crops.
8. Flouride
a. Dental decay if > 1.5 mg/l
b. White, yellow, or brown stains on teeth, weakened enamel.
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Biological Parameters
1. Bacteria & Viruses – Indicators of water contamination.
• E. coli & Coliform Bacteria: Found in sewage, cause diarrhea and other infections.
• Hepatitis A Virus: Causes liver disease.
2. Algae & Fungi – Some produce toxins (e.g., blue-green algae cause poisoning).
3. Parasites (Giardia, Cryptosporidium, etc.) – Cause waterborne diseases.
How Do Pathogens Enter Water Sources?
• Fecal Contamination – Sewage leaks, open defecation, animal waste.
• Floods & Natural Disasters – Contaminated drinking water supplies.
• Industrial & Agricultural Runoff – Pollutes water with bacteria and viruses.
• Poor Sanitation & Waste Disposal – Lack of proper sewage treatment
Waterborne Diseases
Waterborne diseases are illnesses caused by microorganisms (bacteria, viruses, parasites, or fungi) present
in contaminated water. These diseases spread through drinking, bathing, or coming into contact with infected
water and are a major public health concern, especially in areas with poor sanitation.
Some of the common waterborne diseases are presented in the table below:
Rainwater harvesting is the simple process or technology used to conserve rainwater by collecting, storing,
conveying, and purifying rainwater that runs off from rooftops, parks, roads, open grounds, etc. for later use.
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General water harvesting method
Water harvesting is the process of collecting, storing, and using rainwater or runoff for various purposes,
such as agriculture, drinking water, groundwater recharge, and irrigation. It helps in conserving water,
reducing dependence on external sources, and preventing water scarcity.
Artificial recharge of groundwater
It is the induced replenishment of the groundwater reservoir or aquifer by human activities. These methods
are essential for replenishing depleting groundwater resources, improving water availability, and preventing
land subsidence.
Scientific Studies Before Artificial Groundwater Recharge
Before implementing artificial groundwater recharge, several scientific studies must be conducted to ensure
suitability, efficiency, and sustainability. These studies help determine the feasibility of recharge methods
based on climatic, hydrological, geological, and water quality factors.
1. Hydrometeorological Studies
Hydrometeorological studies analyze rainfall patterns, intensity, duration, and frequency in the project area.
These studies help determine the availability of surface water for recharge and ensure that the infrastructure
can handle extreme weather events like heavy downpours or droughts. Long-term rainfall data helps in
selecting the best time and method for artificial recharge.
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2. Hydrological Studies
Hydrological studies focus on assessing the availability of surface water and groundwater for recharge. These
studies examine rivers, lakes, reservoirs, and seasonal water flow to determine the volume of water that can
be diverted for artificial recharge. Understanding water availability ensures that the recharge process does
not disrupt ecosystems or existing water usage.
4. Soil Infiltration Studies
Soil infiltration studies evaluate the soil’s ability to absorb and transmit water. The texture, porosity, and
permeability of soil determine how effectively water can percolate into the ground. Sandy and gravelly soils
are ideal for recharge, whereas clayey soils hinder infiltration. These studies help in selecting the most
suitable recharge structures, such as percolation ponds, trenches, or injection wells.
5. Hydrogeological Studies
Hydrogeological studies assess the depth, type, and storage capacity of aquifers to determine their suitability
for artificial recharge. They help identify whether the aquifer is confined, unconfined, or semi-confined,
which influences the recharge method. These studies also examine groundwater flow direction and existing
well yields to ensure efficient water recharge.
6. Geophysical Studies
Geophysical studies use techniques like electrical resistivity surveys, seismic methods, and magnetic surveys
to identify underground rock formations, fractures, and faults. These studies help in selecting the most
suitable site for recharge by determining subsurface permeability and water-holding capacity. A well-
selected site ensures efficient water infiltration and storage in the aquifer.
7. Analysis of Source Water
Before using water for recharge, its physical, chemical, and biological properties must be analyzed to prevent
contamination of groundwater. Parameters such as pH, turbidity, dissolved salts, heavy metals, and microbial
content are tested. Poor-quality water can pollute aquifers, making them unfit for drinking or irrigation.
Treatment methods like filtration and sedimentation are applied if necessary.
8. Prevention of Clogging
Clogging occurs when fine particles, organic matter, or biological growth block the pores of soil or recharge
structures, reducing infiltration efficiency. Preventive measures include removing sediments, installing filter
beds, and periodic maintenance of recharge sites. Using gravels, sand layers, and sedimentation basins helps
in maintaining long-term recharge efficiency.
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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
Rainwater harvesting
Rainwater harvesting is the simple process or technology used to conserve rainwater by collecting, storing,
conveying, and purifying rainwater that runs off from rooftops, parks, roads, open grounds, etc. for later use.
Why do we Harvest Rainwater?
• The rainwater harvesting system is one of the best methods practiced and followed to support
the conservation of water.
• Today, scarcity of good quality water has become a significant cause of concern.
• Rainwater, which is pure and of good quality, can be used for irrigation, washing,
cleaning, bathing, cooking, and also for other livestock requirements.
•
Advantages of Rainwater Harvesting
• Less cost.
• Helps in reducing the water bill.
• Promotes both water and energy conservation.
• Improves the quality and quantity of groundwater.
• This technology is relatively simple and easy to install and operate.
• It reduces soil erosion, stormwater runoff, flooding, and pollution of surface water with fertilizers,
pesticides, metals, and other sediments.
• It is an excellent source of water for landscape irrigation with no chemicals, dissolved salts, and
free from all minerals.
Rainwater harvesting methods can be broadly classified into surface and subsurface methods based on how
and where the collected rainwater is stored or used.
1. Surface Rainwater Harvesting
This method involves collecting and storing rainwater on the surface in natural or man-made structures for
direct use or future utilization.
Examples of Surface Rainwater Harvesting:
• Rooftop Rainwater Harvesting: Collecting rainwater from rooftops using gutters and directing it into
storage tanks.
• Check Dams & Percolation Ponds: Small barriers across streams to store and slowly infiltrate water
into the ground.
• Storage Tanks & Reservoirs: Rainwater is collected in tanks for household, irrigation, or industrial
use.
• Rain Gardens & Pits: Depressions designed to capture rainwater, reduce runoff, and promote
infiltration.
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2. Subsurface Rainwater Harvesting
This method involves directing rainwater underground to recharge groundwater sources rather than storing
it on the surface. It helps replenish aquifers and improve groundwater availability.
Examples of Subsurface Rainwater Harvesting:
• Recharge Wells (Injection recharge): Water is directed into specially constructed wells to replenish
deep aquifers.
• Infiltration Pits & Trenches: Small excavations filled with gravel or sand to allow water to percolate
into the soil.
• Borewell Recharge: Diverting rainwater into existing borewells to enhance groundwater levels.
• Sand Dams & Subsurface Dykes: Barriers built underground to store water within sand layers and
prevent evaporation losses
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Methods of Rainwater Harvesting
1. Rooftop Rainwater Harvesting (RRWH)
• Collects rainwater from rooftops and directs it into storage tanks or recharge pits.
• Used for domestic, agricultural, or industrial purposes.
• Can be filtered and used for drinking if treated properly.
2. Surface Runoff Harvesting
• Collects rainwater from roads, pavements, or open spaces.
• Directs water to reservoirs, ponds, or artificial recharge structures.
• Helps prevent urban flooding and replenishes groundwater.
3. Flooding
• For flat topography
• Water spread as a thin sheet
• Embankments on both sides
• Infiltration is higher in sandy soil with undistributed vegetation
4. Stream augmentation
• Seepage from a natural stream or river is artificially increased by putting some series of check dams
across the river or stream.
• The placing of check dams spread the water in a larger area, which eventually increases
groundwater recharge.
• The sites for the check dams should be selected in such a way that sufficient thickness of permeable
bed or weathered bed is available for quick recharging the stored water.
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5. Percolation tank
• A series of earthen dams are constructed on suitable sites for storing an adequate quantity of surface
water.
• The tank area should be selected in such a way that a significant amount of water infiltrates
through the bed of the tank and reaches the groundwater table.
• Effective in alluvial area, hard rock area.
• Useful in providing continuous recharge after the monsoon.
• Size of tank depends upon the percolation capacity of the strata.
• Effective in alluvial area, hard rock area.
• Useful in providing continuous recharge after the monsoon.
• Size of tank depends upon the percolation capacity of the strata
• Excavated ponds in agricultural fields to store rainwater for irrigation.
• Reduces dependence on groundwater.
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6. Ditch and Furrow Method
• Areas with uneven terrain
• A system of closely spaced flat bottom ditch or furrow is used to carry the water from the source.
• This system provides more opportunity to percolate the water into the ground.
• The spacing of the ditch depends on the permeability of the soil.
• For less permeable soil, more densely spaced ditch or furrow should be provided.
7. Contour Bund
• Contour bund is a small embankment constructed along the contour in a hilly region to retain the
surface runoff for a longer time.
• Contour bunding is a traditional rainwater harvesting technique used to conserve soil and water in
sloped agricultural lands. It involves constructing earthen embankments (bunds) along the natural
contour lines of the land to slow down runoff, prevent soil erosion, and enhance groundwater
recharge.
• This scheme is adopted for low rainfall areas where internal subsurface drainage is good
8. Underground Storage Tanks
• Stores rainwater in underground tanks for future use.
• Common in urban areas where space is limited.
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9. Injection Wells
• Directly injects rainwater into aquifers for groundwater recharge.
• Used in urban areas with deep groundwater levels
• Less land required
• Similar to a tube well
• Pumping in treated surface water under pressure
• Best suitable for confined and semiconfined aquifer
10. Subsurface barriers/ dykes
• A subsurface dyke, also known as an underground dam.
• It is a water conservation structure built below the ground level to prevent the flow of subsurface
(underground) water and store it for future use.
• These structures help in groundwater recharge and water retention in areas with limited surface
water availability.
• These dykes are built using clay, concrete, plastic sheets, or stone to prevent water seepage.
• Reduces Evaporation Loss: Since the stored water remains underground, it is protected from
evaporation and contamination.
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11. Recharge shafts
• These are the most efficient and cost-effective structures to recharge the aquifer directly.
• In the area where the impervious layer is encountered at shallow depth.
• Where an unconfined aquifer is not hydraulically in connection with surface water.
• The diameter of shaft should be more than 2 m for recharging rate 7–14 lps.
Rooftop Rainwater Harvesting (RRWH)
Rooftop Rainwater Harvesting (RRWH) is a technique that collects rainwater from a building’s roof. The
roof acts as a catchment, and the rainwater is stored in tanks or diverted to an artificial recharge system.
It can help recharge groundwater levels and prove to be a source of water, especially during dry seasons.
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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
Steps of rooftop rainwater harvesting
• Collection of rainwater from catchment areas
• Conveyance through gutters and downpipes
• Cleaning up of debris and contaminants
• Storage of the collected rainwater in tanks
• Distribution of the stored water for reuse
Components of rooftop rainwater harvesting
1. Catchment area
• The surface that receives the rainfall directly and transfers water to the system is called the
catchment area.
• It can be a paved area such as a building’s terrace.
• Usually made of tiles, metal sheets, or concrete.
• Smooth, clean, and non-toxic materials help in better water collection.
• The water that leaves the rooftop may be 65 – 90% of the water that falls on it
2. Conduits
• Gutters and downpipes transport water from the roof to the storage system.
• Conduits may be of any type, such as polyvinyl chloride (PVC) or galvanised iron (GI).
• Conduit guards and mesh filters prevent debris from entering the system
3. First Flush
• The first rain carries with it a lot of filth from the rooftop and dissolved air pollutants
• This rainwater should be diverted away from the storage tank using a first flush device.
• Some filters have a first flush system integrated in them
• Check and clean first flush devices regularly
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4. Filters
• These filters can be used to treat water to efficiently reduce turbidity (suspended particles such as
silt and clay), colour, and microorganisms.
• Common filters include: Sand and gravel filters, Charcoal filters (for odor and bacteria removal),
Mesh screen filters
• The top layer contains coarse sand followed by a 5-10 mm layer of gravel followed by another 5-
25 cm layer of gravel and boulders in a basic sand filter that can be built domestically.
5. Storage Tanks
• Holds the collected rainwater for later use
• There are different options available for the construction of these tanks in terms of form, height,
construction material, and tank location.
• Material of construction: Reinforced cement concrete (RCC), ferro cement, plastic (polyethylene)
are commonly used.
• Position of tank: Depending on space availability, these tanks could be constructed above ground,
partly underground or fully underground.
• Tanks must be covered to prevent contamination and mosquito breeding.
Storage for daily use
• In this method, rain water collected from the roof of the building is diverted to a storage tank.
• The storage tank has to be designed according to the water requirements, rainfall, and
catchment availability.
• It is advisable that each tank should have an excess water overflow system. Excess water could
be diverted to the recharge system.
• Water from the storage tank can be used for secondary purposes such as washing and
gardening, etc.
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Storage for groundwater recharging
Ground water table can be recharged by various kinds of structures to ensure percolation of rainwater
in the ground instead of draining away from the surface.
Commonly used recharging methods are:-
o Recharging of bore wells
o Recharging of dug wells
o Percolation tank
6. Pumping System
Hand pumps or electric pumps are used to extract stored rainwater if placed below ground level
7. Overflow System
• Extra rainwater is directed away from the tank through drain pipes to avoid flooding.
• Can be linked to garden irrigation or groundwater recharge pits
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Advantages of rooftop rainwater harvesting
• Helps in reducing the water bill.
• Decreases the water demand.
• Promotes both water and energy conservation.
• This technology is relatively simple, easy to install, and operate.
• Reduces the need for imported water.
• Improves the quality and quantity of groundwater.
Dis-advantages of rooftop rainwater harvesting
• Regular maintenance is required.
• Requires some technical skills for installation.
• Limited and no rainfall can limit the supply of rainwater.
• If not installed correctly, it may attract mosquitoes and other waterborne diseases.
• One of the significant drawbacks of the rainwater harvesting system is storage limits.
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