Module-2

Elementary knowledge of ground water

Syllabus
Elementary knowledge of ground water:
General aquifer, Water quality and its impact on human beings. Water harvesting
need, principles of rain water harvesting, general water-harvesting methods- rain
water harvesting methods, classes, benefits, approach, roof top rain water harvesting,
suraface barriers/ dykes, farm ponding etc mostly used in rural areas.

General aquifer: A geological formation that is water bearing or saturated with water
and is capable of yielding sufficient quantity of water for economic exploitation is
termed as aquifers.
It transports water from recharge area to surface bodies of water and other collecting
devices. There are many types of aquifers.

Unconfined Aquifers

1. Aquifers which are bounded by a free surface (known as ‘water table’) at the
upper boundary and a confining layer at the lower boundary are called
unconfined aquifers (Aquifer 1 in Fig. 3.1). At the water table, water is at the
atmospheric pressure, and hence unconfined aquifers are also called ‘water-
table aquifers’ or ‘phreatic aquifers’.

Unconfined aquifers receive recharge directly from the overlying surface through
rainfall infiltration or percolation from surface water bodies. They usually exhibit a
shallow water level. A typical indicator of an unconfined aquifer is that the water
level in a well tapping this aquifer is equal to the water table position at that location
of the aquifer. In other words, water level doesn’t rise above the water table.

Confined Aquifers

Aquifers which are bounded both above and below by impervious or semi-pervious
layers are called confined aquifers and the water present in these aquifers are under
pressure (Aquifers 2 and 3 in Fig. 3.1). Confined aquifers are sometimes also called
‘pressure aquifers’ or ‘artesian aquifers’; the latter term is gradually becoming
obsolete. Since the water present in a confined aquifer is at a pressure greater than the
atmospheric pressure, the water level in a borewell penetrating a confined aquifer will
always rise above the top confining layer of the aquifer. The term ‘piezometric level’
is used to denote this water level. Thus, ‘Piezometric level’ is an imaginary position to
which the water level will rise in a borewell tapping a confined aquifer. Piezometric
level in two dimensions is called ‘piezometric surface’.

Leaky Aquifers

If an aquifer (confined aquifer or unconfined aquifer) loses or gains water through

adjacent semi-permeable layers, it is called a ‘leaky aquifer’ (Fig. 3.1). Therefore, the
terms ‘leaky confined aquifer’ and ‘leaky unconfined aquifer’ are widely used
depending on whether the leaky aquifer is confined or unconfined. However, the case
of ‘leaky confined aquifer’ has been mostly dealt with by the groundwater experts.
This is why, the term ‘semi-confined aquifer’ is sometimes used to denote a ‘leaky
aquifer’. The term ‘nonleaky’ is also used to describe the status of a confined or
unconfined aquifer, such as ‘nonleaky unconfined aquifers’ and ‘nonleaky confined
aquifers’. In reality, ideal confined aquifers or ideal unconfined aquifers occur less
frequently than do leaky aquifers.

Perched Aquifers

A perched aquifer is a special type of an unconfined aquifer, in which water exists

under water-table conditions. Therefore, the upper boundary of this aquifer is called
‘perched water table’ (Fig. 3.1). Perched aquifer always exists in the vadose zone
above an unconfined aquifer or a confined aquifer when a low-permeability layer
impedes the downward movement of water above it. Perched aquifers have generally
very limited areal extent and they may not have sufficient storage to support
significant well production. Therefore, perched aquifers are not the target of a
groundwater exploration. However, perched aquifers can support shallow dug wells,
thereby can provide water supply to a small community for a limited time period.

A common misconception about aquifers is that they are underground rivers or lakes.
While groundwater can seep into or out of aquifers due to their porous nature, it
cannot move fast enough to flow like a river. The rate at which groundwater moves
through an aquifer varies depending on the rock’s permeability.

Much of the water we use for domestic, industrial, or agricultural purposes

is groundwater. Most groundwater, including a significant amount of our drinking
water, comes from aquifers. In order to access this water, a well must be created by
drilling a hole that reaches the aquifer. While wells are manmade points
of discharge for aquifers, they also discharge naturally at springs and in wetlands.

Groundwater can become depleted if we use it at a faster rate than it

can replenish itself. The replenishment of aquifers by precipitation is called
recharging. Depletion of aquifers has increased primarily due to expanding
agricultural irrigation. Groundwater can become contaminated when an excessive
amount of pesticides and herbicides are sprayed on agricultural fields, septic tanks
leak, or landfills are improperly lined or managed and toxic materials seep through the
soil into the aquifer.

Aquifers naturally filter groundwater by forcing it to pass through small pores and
between sediments, which helps to remove substances from the water. This natural
filtration process, however, may not be enough to remove all of the contaminants.

Water quality and its impact on human beings

Healthy water contains minerals such as:

1. Calcium & magnesium – for good bone development

2. Chlorine – for our digestive process
3. Copper – improves the function of enzymes in blood and muscles
4. Iron – supports blood and muscle tissues
5. Potassium – aids myocardium activities, water retention, and more
6. Sodium – a key component of blood plasma and essential for energy

Agencies for setting Water Quality Standards

There are many sources of water quality criteria and standards. Worldwide many
developed countries have set their own water quality standards. For, e.g., in Europe,
there are European Drinking Water Directive and in the United States the United
States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) establishes standards as required by
the Safe Drinking Water Act. For the countries without any standards, World Health
Organization (WHO) publishes guidelines on the standards.

a). EPA: In the USA, the federal legislation controlling drinking water quality is
the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) which is implemented by the EPA, mainly
through state or territorial primacy agencies. United States EPA has set Maximum
Contaminant Levels standards that are the legal threshold limits on the amount of a
substance that is allowed in public water systems under the Safe Drinking Water
Act. To set a maximum contaminant Level for a contaminant, EPA first determines
how much of the contaminant may be present with no adverse health effects. EPA’s
compilation of national recommended water quality criteria consist of the protection
of aquatic life and human health in surface water for approximately 150 pollutants. It
provides guidance for states and tribes to use to establish water quality standards and
ultimately provide a basis for controlling discharges or releases of pollutants.

b).WHO: WHO has issued guidelines for drinking water quality that deals with
guideline values, different contaminants and information regarding handling water
supplies in small rural communities. WHO recognizes that very stringent standards
cannot be used universally and so a range of guideline values for more than 60
parameters have been elaborated.

c) Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS): In India permissible and desirable limits of

various parameters in drinking water has been set by BIS specifications for potable
water (BIS-10500-1991) drawn up in 1983.

The standards were set with the following objectives:

 To assess the quality of water resources
 To check the effectiveness of water treatment and supply by the concerned
authorities.
 Different parameters (physical, chemical and biological, toxic substances)
covered include color, odour, pH, total dissolved solids, hardness, alkalinity,
elemental compounds such as iron, manganese, sulphate, chloride, arsenic,
zinc and coliform bacteria etc.
 The standard categorises various characteristics as essential or desirable. It
mentions the desirable limit and indicates its background so that the
implementing authorities may exercise their discretion, keeping in view the
health of the people, adequacy of treatment etc.
 These parameters apply to drinking water supplied by different
Authorities/Agencies/ Departments of State Governments and Central
Government, wherever applicable in the country.

Water quality is paramount for public health. Despite improvements in recent

decades, access to good quality drinking water remains a critical issue. The World
Health Organization estimates that almost 10% of the population in the world do not
have access to improved drinking water sources.

Need for management of water quality

 Fresh water is a precious resource but due to different anthropogenic activities
like change in agriculture practices, excessive use of fertilizers, pesticides,
 herbicides have added excess nutrient load in water bodies have created the
problem of eutrophication that have affected the water quality badly.
 Siltation due to erosion, industrialization, sewage discharge and other
domestic activities have also deteriorated the water quality of lakes, rivers,
groundwater as well as coastal waters worldwide.
 There is an urgent need for addressing fecal pollution as there is a direct
relationship among sanitation, nutrition and health.
 There is a need for collaboration of various pollution control bodies, Water
Supply and Public Health Agencies and different scientific agencies to solve
the problem of water scarcity and its management. It will help in analyzing the
present and future scenario of our country through a proper planning for water
usage and availability.
 The availability of sufficient water will not only meet the energy needs but
will also ensure food security in India.

Factors affecting water quality

Different factors contribute to the quality of surface as well as groundwater. Water

flowing over or under the land surface can undergo different physical and chemical
changes which lead to change in water quality. These changes can be due to natural or
anthropogenic activities. Some important factors that affect water quality have been
discussed as under:

1. Natural factors

a).Weathering of bedrock minerals : The physical weathering causes mechanical

breakdown of the bedrock into rock fragments and sediments that are being exposed
to atmosphere and hydrosphere whereas chemical weathering chemically break down
bedrock minerals into smaller fragments with the help of water and CO2. Both
physical and chemical weathering effects the composition of natural waters. Increased
CO2 concentration in water due to natural or man- made activities enhances the
acidity of water. Chemical weathering can even reduce the rock strength that can
affect the erosion rates of rivers. Suspended sediments can reduce water clarity and
quality whereas fine sediments can affect aquatic organisms like clogging fish gills. If
harmful substances such as heavy metals get attach to sediments and seep down into
the underground water it can affect the water quality.

b). Atmospheric processes involving evapotranspiration :Evapotranspiration can

cause loss of considerable amount of water into the atmosphere from the soil surface
and water bodies. In arid zones where low humidity prevails, considerable amount of
water is lost in evaporation from soil surface. Water bodies with no or few vegetation
on their banks have high temperature that leads to loss of water and can affect its
quality.

c). Deposition of dust, salt and air pollutants by wind: Dust, salt and other
pollutants from the atmosphere may be deposited directly onto the surface water
bodies or by wind. Pollutants from atmosphere like gases and particulates released
from different sources such as vehicular emissions, crop residue burning and
industrial emissions releases compounds of nitrogen, sulphur, and heavy metals.
These substances when deposited directly onto the surface of water bodies
contaminate it and may cause its acidification ultimately affecting the aquatic life.

d). Natural disasters like floods and draught: Floods and droughts may bring about
changes in water quality through dilution or concentration of dissolved substances. If
there are low river flow rates and the temperature of atmosphere is high then the
concentration of dissolved substances increases and the level of dissolved oxygen
decrease that ultimately affects the water quality and the aquatic life.

2. Anthropogenic activities

a). Over-exploitation: The major part of flow of water (about 69‒96%) in most of
the Indian rivers occurs during monsoon season that results in limited access to
freshwater. Other activities like unsustainable use of water for industries, agriculture
and domestic use etc. has resulted in shrinking or drying up of both groundwater and
surface water bodies. The main means of irrigation in the country are canals, tanks
and wells, including tube-wells. Wells, including dug wells, shallow tube-wells and
deep tube wells provide about 61.6% of water for irrigation, followed by canals with
24.5%. States such as Gujarat and Tamil Nadu showed some improvement, traditional
farming states such as Punjab and Haryana have witnessed rising exploitation of
groundwater resources.

b). Agricultural runoff and change in irrigation practices: To meet the needs of
the growing population, use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides have increased
manifolds in agriculture in the recent years. Major portion of freshwater is used in
agriculture in India. These chemicals particularly pesticides are recalcitrant in nature
that leach into the groundwater and pollute and make it a public health hazard for e.g.,
Selenium (Se) is a heavy metal that is present naturally in soil but with increase
irrigation practices it accumulates in the soil, leaches to groundwater and causes toxic
effects to both animals and humans .

c). Domestic and municipal waste: Sewage pollution accounts for more than 75 %
of the surface water contamination in India. Garbage and domestic waste is directly
dumped into water bodies. The municipalities dispose off their treated or partly
treated even untreated wastewater into natural drains joining rivers or lakes. It is
estimated that around 80% of water consumed by a household is let of to the drains of
sewers as wastewater.

d).Pathogenic pollution: One of the major water quality threats is in India is water
borne diseases. This is mainly due to inadequate supply of water, improper treatment
of wastewater, contamination of surface water and groundwater by sewer overflows,
runoff from animal feedlots or pastures and leaking septic tanks that results in spread
of a number of diseases like diarrhea, cholera, dysentery, typhoid and other enteric
diseases particularly to the people residing in rural areas especially children and old
age people.

e). Geogenic Pollution: The geogenic problems are mainly caused due to mixing of a
large amount of contaminants like Fluoride, arsenic etc in the water. Arsenic is found
in groundwater most commonly as the reduced species arsenite and the oxidized
species arsenate. The acute toxicity of arsenite is greater than arsenate. WHO studies
indicated that 20% of 25,000 boreholes tested in Bangladesh had arsenic
concentrations exceeding 50μg/l. The occurrence of fluoride causes dental fluorosis
when fluoride concentrations in groundwater exceed 1.5 mg/l.

f). Eutrophication: Globally, one of the most prevalent water quality problems is
eutrophication. It results from high-nutrient loads mainly phosphorus and nitrogen
from industries and agriculture runoff, domestic sewage that impairs the beneficial
uses of water. Eutrophication leads to depletion of oxygen to a large extent resulting
in the death of aquatic organisms and thus unbalanced aquatic ecosystem. Lakes and
reservoirs are particularly more susceptible to the negative impacts of eutrophication
as they act as an integrating sink for pollutants from their drainage basins due to their
relatively longer water residence time. According to CPCB in metropolitan cities of
India, increase of nitrates and pathogens in groundwater is a major concern whereas
pollution is rising in many industrial areas like Balotra, Pali, Jodhpur (Rajasthan),
Ahmadabad, Jetpur (Gujarat)

g). Salinity: Increased irrigation activities, discharges of industrial wastewaters or

agricultural return water and seawater intrusion in coastal areas has led to enhanced
groundwater salinity that makes the water unfit for drinking and irrigation.

h).Toxicity: Discharge of toxic effluents particularly heavy metals from industries

and agriculture run off deteriorate the quality of water making it unfit for aquatic life,
human consumption and for irrigation purposes. Toxic substances especially
carcinogens lead to bio-magnification and bioaccumulation thereby causing severe
damage to aquatic life. For e.g., dye, textile and wool industries release cadmium,
nickel, cobalt in wastewater. Similarly, Iron and steel industries release Nickel,
Cadmium, and iron with high chloride content.

Effects on Human Health

If drinking water contains unsafe levels of contaminants, it can cause health effects,
such as gastrointestinal illnesses, nervous system or reproductive effects, and chronic
diseases such as cancer. Factors that can influence whether a contaminant will lead to
health effects include the type of contaminant, its concentration in the water,
individual susceptibility, the amount of water consumed, and the duration of
exposure.

1. Health effects of chemical exposure. Chemical exposure through drinking

water can lead to a variety of short- and long-term health effects. Exposure to
high doses of chemicals can lead to skin discoloration or more severe problems
such as nervous system or organ damage and developmental or reproductive
effects. Exposure to lower doses over long periods of time can lead to chronic,
longer-term conditions such as cancer. The effects of some drinking water
contaminants are not yet well understood.
 2. Health effects of consuming water with disease-causing microbes. Most
life-threatening waterborne diseases caused by microbes (such as typhoid fever or
cholera) are rare in the United States today. The more common illnesses caused
by viruses, bacteria, and parasites can result in stomach pain, vomiting, diarrhea,
headache, fever, and kidney failure. Infectious diseases such as hepatitis can also
occur. Hepatitis may be severe in people with weakened immune systems (e.g.,
infants and the elderly) and sometimes fatal in people with severely compromised
immune systems (e.g., cancer and AIDS patients).
3. Ingesting microplastics
A person may ingest microplastics through drinking water or by eating
contaminated seafood. One 2020 studyTrusted Source estimated that humans
ingest between 0.1 and 5 grams of microplastics [Link] show
microplastics may cause oxidative stress, inflammatory reactions, and metabolic
disorders in humans. However, further research is needed to confirm these effects.
Consuming water contaminated by sewage:
The WHO notes that globally, around 1.7 billionTrusted Source people use drinking
water sources with fecal contaminants. Contaminated water can harbor bacteria, such
as those responsible for diarrhea, cholera, dysentery, typhoid, hepatitis A,
and polio.
According to the WHO, every year, approximately 1.4 million peopleTrusted
Source die due to poor sanitation, poor hygiene, or unsafe drinking water each year.

Water harvesting
Introduction :

Water harvesting is the practice of collecting and storing rainwater or runoff from
various sources for future use. It is an important technique that helps address water
scarcity, enhance water availability, and support various aspects of human life.
The following are the major concepts surrounding the importance of water
harvesting:
1. Water Security:
o Water harvesting provides an additional source of water, especially in
areas where access to fresh water is limited or unreliable.
o It helps reduce the impacts of drought and water scarcity by capturing
and storing rainwater during periods of abundant rainfall for use during
dry spells.
2. Agricultural Benefits:
o Water harvesting supports agricultural activities by providing irrigation
water for crops during low rainfall.
o Farmers can use stored rainwater to supplement their irrigation needs,
reducing dependence on uncertain & low rainfall and improving crop
productivity.
3. Improved Water Availability:
o Water harvesting helps increase water availability in areas where
groundwater sources are overexploited or inaccessible.
o Water harvesting contributes to sustainable water management and
ensures a more reliable water supply by capturing rainwater and
recharging groundwater reserves.
4. Ecosystem Conservation:
o Water harvesting can help restore or maintain the ecological balance in
water-scarce areas by replenishing natural water bodies, such as lakes,
ponds, and wetlands.
o This contributes to the preservation of biodiversity, supports wildlife
habitats, and ensures the sustainability of ecosystems.
5. Groundwater Recharge:
o Water harvesting facilitates the recharge of groundwater aquifers,
which are essential sources of freshwater.
o By directing rainwater into the ground through techniques such as
percolation tanks, recharge wells, or infiltration basins, water
harvesting helps replenish underground water reserves.
6. Flood Mitigation:
o Water harvesting helps reduce the risk of flooding by capturing excess
rainfall and runoff.
o By collecting rainwater in storage structures such as reservoirs or
ponds, water harvesting prevents excessive water runoff and the
associated damages caused by floods.
7. Domestic Water Supply:
o Water harvesting provides an alternative water source for domestic
use, especially in rural areas or remote regions where piped water
supply is limited.
o Stored rainwater can be treated and used for drinking, cooking,
cleaning, and other household activities.
8. Cost Savings:
o Water harvesting can lead to significant cost savings for individuals,
communities, and institutions.
o By utilizing rainwater, the reliance on expensive water sources or the
need for extensive water infrastructure can be reduced, resulting in
financial benefits.
9. Climate Change Resilience:
o Water harvesting contributes to climate change resilience by building
adaptive capacity.
o As climate change leads to increased variability in rainfall patterns,
water harvesting provides a practical and sustainable solution to
manage water resources more effectively.
10. Community Empowerment:
o Water harvesting projects often involve community participation,
fostering a sense of ownership and empowerment among individuals.
o Communities become actively involved in the planning,
implementation, and maintenance of water harvesting systems,
strengthening social cohesion and cooperation.
Types of Water Harvesting
Rainwater Harvesting: Rainwater harvesting is defined as the method for inducing,
collecting, storing and conserving local surface runoff for agriculture in arid and
semi-arid regions. Three types of water harvesting are covered by rainwater
harvesting.
 Water collected from roof tops, courtyards and similar compacted or treated
surfaces is used for domestic purpose or garden crops.
 Micro-catchment water harvesting is a method of collecting surface runoff
from a small catchment area and storing it in the root zone of an adjacent
infiltration basin. The basin is planted with a tree, a bush or with annual crops.
 Macro-catchment water harvesting, also called harvesting from external
catchments is the case where runoff from hill-slope catchments is conveyed to
the cropping area located at foothill on flat terrain.
Flood Water Harvesting: Flood water harvesting can be defined as the collection
and storage of creek flow for irrigation use. Flood water harvesting, also known as
‘large catchment water harvesting’ or ‘Spate Irrigation’, may be classified into
following two forms:
 In case of ‘flood water harvesting within stream bed’, the water flow is
dammed and as a result, inundates the valley bottom of the flood plain. The
water is forced to infiltrate and the wetted area can be used for agriculture or
pasture improvement.
 In case of ‘flood water diversion’, the wadi water is forced to leave its natural
course and conveyed to nearby cropping fields.
Groundwater Harvesting: Groundwater harvesting is a rather new term and
employed to cover traditional as well as unconventional ways of ground water
extraction. Qanat systems, underground dams and special types of wells are a few
examples of the groundwater harvesting techniques. Groundwater dams like
‘Subsurface Dams’ and ‘Sand Storage Dams’ are other fine examples of groundwater
harvesting. They obstruct the flow of ephemeral streams in a river bed; the water is
stored in the sediment below ground surface and can be used for aquifer recharge.

Advantages of Rain Water Harvesting

1. Reduces Flooding and Erosion
2. Reduces Water BillsReduces Demand on Ground Water
3. Can Be Used for Non-drinking Purposes
4. Can Improve Plant Growth
Disadvantage of Rain Water Harvesting
[Link] can be contaminated by bird/ animal droppings on catchment surfaces and
guttering structures unless they are cleaned / flushed before us.
[Link] constructed water jars/containers can suffer from algal growth and invasion
by insects, lizards and rodents.
[Link] can act as a breeding ground for disease vectors if they are not properly
maintained.

Eight Principles of Successful Water Harvesting

1. Begin with long and thoughtful observation.

Use all your senses to see where the water (and the sediment it carries) flows and
how. What is working, what is not? Build on what works. Consider how you might
help fix that which is not working.

2. Start at the top (highpoint) of your watershed and work your way down.
Water travels downhill, so collect water at your high points for more immediate
infiltration and easy gravity-fed distribution. Start at the top where it easier as there is
less volume and velocity of water.

3. Start small and simple.

Work at the human scale so you can build and repair everything. Many small
strategies are far more effective than one big one when you are trying to infiltrate
water into the soil.

4. Slow, spread, and infiltrate the flow of water.

Rather than having water run erosively off the land’s surface, encourage it to stick
around, hang out, and infiltrate into the soil. Slow it, spread it, sink it.

5. Always plan an overflow route, and manage that overflow as a resource.

Always have an overflow route for the water in times of extra heavy rains, and where
possible, use the overflow as a resource.

6. Maximize living and organic groundcover.

Create a living sponge so the harvested water is used to grow more resources, while
the soil’s ability to infiltrate and hold water steadily improves.

7. Maximize beneficial relationships and efficiency by “stacking functions.”

Get your water harvesting strategies to do more than hold water. Berms can double as
high-and-dry raised paths. Plantings can be placed to cool buildings in summer.
Vegetation can be selected to provide food.

8. Continually reassess your system: the “feedback loop.”

Observe how your work affects the site, beginning again with the first principle. Make
any needed changes, using the principles to guide you.

Methods to collect rainwater

The only thing that differs in the following methods is the scale of the system. They
all follow the same principles but differ on aesthetics and actual water conservation
effectiveness.

1. Rain barrels: This method is the most common and one that many people are
familiar with. This involves installing a barrel at a gutter downspout to collect
rainwater. The actual barrel may be a recycled barrel or a new commercially available
rain barrel.

Pros:
1. Easily implemented by anyone at any residence
2. Barrels are readily available in your community or at various stores & websites
3. Barrels don't take up much space so they can fit into any situation

Cons:
1. Capacity is generally only 50 to 100 gallons
2. Easily overflows and wastes collection opportunities

3. Dry system: This method is a variation of a rain barrel set-up, but it involves a
larger storage volume. Essentially, the collection pipe "dry" after each rain event
since it empties directly into the top of the tank.
Pros:
1. Can store a large amount of rainwater 
2. Great for climates where rainfall happens with infrequent, larger storm events 
3. Can be inexpensive to implement Less complicated system so maintenance is
easier
Cons:
The storage tank must be located next to your house

[Link] systems:
This method involves locating the collection pipes underground in order to connect
multiple downspouts from different gutters. The rainwater will fill the underground
pipingand the water will rise in the vertical pipes until it spills into the tank. The
downspouts and underground collection piping must have water-tight connections.
The elevation of the tank inlet must be below the lowest gutter on the house.
Pros:
 The ability to collect from your entire collection surface
 The ability to collect from multiple gutters and downspouts
 The tank can be located away from your house
Cons:
 More expensive to implement due to underground piping
 Sufficient difference between gutters and tank inlet must be available

Traditional water harvesting method:

The storage of rain water on surface is a traditional technique and structures used
were underground tanks, ponds, check dams etc. Recharge to ground water is a new
concept of rain water harvesting and the structures generally used are:
 Pits: Recharge pits are constructed for recharging the shallow aquifer. These are
constructed 1 to 2 m, wide and to 3 m. deep which are back filled with boulders,
gravels, coarse sand.
 Trenches: These are constructed when the permeable stream is available at
shallow depth. Trench may be 0.5 to 1 m. wide, 1 to 1.5m. deep and 10 to 20 m.
long depending up availability of water. These are back filled with filter
materials.
 Dug wells: Existing dug wells may be utilized as recharge structure and water
should pass through filter media before putting into dug well.
 Hand pumps: The existing hand pumps may be used for recharging the
shallow/deep aquifers, if the availability of water is limited. Water should pass
through filter media before diverting it into hand pumps.
 Recharge wells: Recharge wells of 100 to 300 mm. diameter are generally
constructed for recharging the deeper aquifers and water is passed through filter
media to avoid choking of recharge wells.
 Recharge Shafts: For recharging the shallow aquifer which are located below
clayey surface, recharge shafts of 0.5 to 3 m. diameter and 10 to 15 m. deep are
constructed and back filled with boulders, gravels & coarse sand.
 Lateral shafts with bore wells: For recharging the upper as well as deeper
aquifers lateral shafts of 1.5 to 2 m. wide & 10 to 30 m. long depending upon
availability of water with one or two bore wells are constructed. The lateral shafts
are back filled with boulders, gravels & coarse sand.
 Spreading techniques: When permeable strata starts from top then this
technique is used. Spread the water in streams/Nalas by making check dams, nala
bunds, cement plugs, gabion structures or a percolation pond may be constructed.

 Artificial Recharge to Ground Water: Artificial recharge to ground water is a

process by which the ground water reservoir is augmented at a rate exceeding that
obtaining under natural conditions or replenishment. Any man-made scheme or
facility that adds water to an aquifer may be considered to be an artificial
recharge system.
 Diversion of run-off water into existing surface water bodies:Construction
activity in and around the city is resulting in the drying up of water bodies and
reclamation of these tanks for conversion into plots for [Link] flow of storm
run-off into these tanks and water bodies must be ensured. The storm run-off may
be diverted into the nearest tanks or depression, which will create additional
recharge.

Conclusion:
We can conclude that water harvesting techniques and methods were very useful
to people in present water scare situations. People can install simple water harvesting
pit by using methods like rain barrels, wet system and dry system for this methods
materials can also available easily these are consuming less time to install easy to
maintain.

Rain Water Harvesting Methods

There are three methods of harvesting rain water as given
(a)Storing rain water for direct use
(b) Recharging ground water aquifers, from roof top run off
(c) Recharging ground water aquifers with runoff from ground area

[Link] rain water for direct use

In place where the rains occur throughout the year, rain water In place where the rains
occur throughout the year, rain water can be stored in tanks . However, at places
where can be stored in tanks . However, at places where rains rains are for 2 to 3
months, huge volume of storage tanks would are for 2 to 3 months, huge volume of
storage tanks would have provided. In such places, it will be more appropriate to to be
provided. In such places, it will be more appropriate to use rain water to recharge
ground water aquifers rather than to go for storage. If the strata is impermeable, then
storing rain water in storage. If the strata is impermeable, then storing rain water in
storage tanks for direct use is a better. storage tanks for direct use is a better.
Similarly, if the ground water is saline/unfit for human consumption or ground water
table is very deep, this method of rain water harvesting is preferable.

1. Recharging ground water aquifers from roof top run off

Rain water that is collected on the roof top of the building may be diverted by drain
pipes to a filtration tank (for bore well, through settlement tank) from which it flows
into the recharge well, as shown in Fig.2.2. The recharge well should preferably be
shallower than the water table. This method of rain water harvesting is preferable in
the areas where the rainfall occurs only for a short period in a year and water table is
at a shallow depth.

[Link] ground water aquifers with runoff from ground areas

The rain water that is collected from the open areas may be diverted by drain pipes to
a recharge dug well / bore well through filter tanks as shown in Fig.2.3. The
abandoned bore well/dug well can be used cost effectively for this purpose. The
various methods

Sub-surface dyke :
Sub-surface dyke is a sub-surface barrier/hidden check dam across a
stream or river which retards the natural subsurface/ground water flow of the system
and stores water below ground surface to meet the demand during the period of need.
The main purpose of groundwater dam is to arrest the base flow and it helps to
maintain groundwater level in the sub-basin. This underground structure arrest or
minimize the base flow of water in the sand bed near the valley portion so as to build-
up the ground water storage in the upstream side of the subsurface dyke. Ground
water has become the most important source of domestic, industrial and irrigation
supply in many regions.
Although the total amount of water on earth is generally assumed to have remained
virtually constant, the rapid growth in population, development in agriculture and
industries putting more stress on the quality and quantity aspects of natural system.
The most suitable location for a sub-surface dyke is proposed should have shallow
impervious layer with wide valley and narrow outlet having limited thickness of loose
soil or porous rock on the top with massive or impervious rock below.
Farm Pond :

Farm pond construction is one of the most effective water conservation

techniques in agriculture. Farm ponds are artificial water bodies created on
farms to collect and store rainwater or surface runoff. These ponds act as
reservoirs that supply water during dry periods, ensuring that crops receive
adequate hydration even when natural water availability is low.

Constructing a farm pond offers several benefits.

1. It allows for the efficient capture and storage of rainwater, which can be
used for irrigation during dry spells.

2. This reduces the reliance on groundwater or other external water sources,

which are often over-extracted and can lead to long-term environmental
degradation.

3. Farm ponds also help recharge local groundwater levels, promoting water
sustainability in the region.

Farm pond construction involves careful planning to determine the appropriate

size, shape, and location of the pond.

1. The site should ideally be in a low-lying area where water naturally

collects.

2. Proper lining of the pond is essential to prevent seepage losses, while

regular maintenance ensures it remains functional over time.

3. When done correctly, farm pond construction not only supports crop
growth but also provides a habitat for local wildlife, enhancing
biodiversity.

Rain Water Harvesting :

 Rain Water Harvesting is the technique of collection and storage of Rain water
at surface or in sub-surface aquifer, before it is lost as surface run off. It is an
effective tool to utilize a large quantity of good quality water which otherwise goes as
waste creating several problems on the ways.
1. Storage & Direct Use
2. Recharge
3. Combination of Storage & Recharge.

Need of RWH 
1. To supplement water supply to meet the demand 
2. Surface water is not adequate to meet our ever increasing water demand and we
have to supplement with ground water. 
3. To augment water availability through harvesting of Rain water 
4. Due to rapid urbanization, infiltration of rain water into the sub-soil has
decreased drastically and recharging of ground water has been reduced. 
5. To arrest decline in ground water level  Over-exploitation of ground water
resource has resulted in decline in water levels in most part of the country.

Benefits of RWH 
1. Enhanced availability of ground water at specific place and time 
2. Improvement in the water quality of groundwater by dilution 
3. Raise the water level & increase in yield of wells. 
4. Reduction in power consumption. 
5. Sustainable agriculture production.
6. Sustainable ecology by increase in the vegetation cover
7. Arresting of sea water ingress in vulnerable coastal aquifers.

RWH Techniques Typically, a rainwater harvesting system consists of three basic

elements: 
 Collection system 
 Conveyance system 
 Storage system.

RWH Techniques 
Collection systems can vary from simple types within a household to bigger systems
where a large catchment area contributes to an impounding reservoir from which
water flows by gravity or pumped. The categorization of rainwater harvesting systems
depends on factors like the size and nature of the catchment areas and whether the
systems are in urban or rural settings.

Storage of Rainwater on surface for future use The Storage of rainwater on surface is
a traditional technique and structures used are underground tanks, Ponds etc Storage
Tank Conservation of Rainwater by collecting in storage tanks is generally done in
areas with poor aquifer systems, eg., hilly areas & poor quality areas, deeper aquifer,
because these area are either not favorable for recharge or abstraction of ground water
is difficult & expensive.

The rooftop runoff is stored in a tank which may be a syntax tank, RCC tank or
Masonry tank and may be constructed on surface or below the ground surface The
runoff of the first shower is drained out. The stored water of tank is used for domestic
purposes after chlorination & filter.

Roof Top Rain Water Harvesting- :

What is Roof Top Rain Water Harvesting ?

The rooftop rainwater harvesting is a method from which rainwater is captured from
the roof catchments which is then stored in reservoirs and by adopting artificial
recharge techniques to meet the household needs through storage in tanks, harvested
rainwater can be stored in the sub-surface groundwater reservoir.
The main purpose of rooftop rainwater harvesting is to make water available for
future use and in dryland, hilly, urban and coastal areas capturing and storing
rainwater for use is particularly important.

Application Areas:
In both new and existing buildings, rooftop rainwater harvesting systems can be
installed and for different applications that do not require drinking water quality such
as garden watering, toilet flushing, irrigation, laundry washing, and cleaning,
harvested rainwater is used.
As a drinking water source, harvested rainwater is also used in many parts of the
world and there is also less consumption of washing and cleaning powder because
rainwater is very soft. The savings in potable water could amount up to 50% of the
total household consumption with rainwater harvesting.

Components of Rooftop Rainwater Harvesting:

There are the following components in rooftop rainwater harvesting as given below;
1. Catchment
2. Transportation
3. First Flush
4. Filter
Catchment:
The catchment of the rainwater harvesting system is the surface that receives rainfall
directly and it may be a courtyard, terrace, or unpaved or paved open ground.

The terrace may be a flat RCC or sloping roof or stone roof, so the area which
actually contributes rainwater to the harvesting system is called catchment.

Transportation:
To take water pipes or drains to the storage/harvesting system rainwater from the
rooftop should be carried down and water pipes should be UV-resistant of the
required capacity.

Through gutters and down take the pipe water from sloping roofs could be caught and
the mouth of each drain should have wire mesh to restrict floating material at terraces.
First Flush:
The first flush device is used to avoid contaminating storable or rechargeable water by
the probable contaminants of the atmosphere and the catchment roof and to flush-off
the water received in the first shower.
During dry seasons it will also help in cleaning of silt and other material deposited on
the roof and at the outlet of each drainpipe, provisions of first rain separators should
be made.
Filter:
For the treatment of water to effectively remove turbidity, color, and microorganisms
filters are used and water should pass through filters after the first flushing of rainfall.
On top of the storage tank gravel, sand, and netlon mesh filter are designed and placed
and in keeping the rainwater in the storage tank clean this filter is very important
because from entering the storage tank it removes silt, dust, leaves, and other organic
matter.

After every rainfall event, the filter media should be cleaned.

Need for Rooftop Rainwater Harvesting:
There are the following needs for the rooftop rainwater harvesting such as;
1. To meet the increasing demands for water and to reduce the runoff.
2. Rooftop rainwater harvesting is used to avoid flooding of roads.
3. It is important to control the decline of water levels and augment groundwater
storage.
4. To reduce groundwater pollution and improve the quality of groundwater.
5. It’s important to reduce the soil erosion and during summer, drought, etc to
supplement domestic water requirements.
Important Factors in Selection of Rainwater Harvesting:
There are the following factors which must be considered when selecting rooftop
rainwater harvesting such as;
1. Catchment area size and type.
2. Weather patterns and local rainfall data.
3. Drought period length.
4. Alternative water sources and rainwater harvesting system cost.
Several factors should be taken into consideration when rainwater harvesting is
mainly considered for irrigation such as;
1. Evapotranspiration rates, rainfall amounts, and intensities.
2. Depth of soil, Soil infiltration rate, water holding capacity, and fertility.
3. Hydrogeology of the site and crop characteristics such as length of growing
period and water requirement.
Benefits of Rooftop Rainwater Harvesting:
There are the following benefits of rainwater harvesting such as;
1. Rainwater is a free source of water and relatively clean water.
2. It provides a source of water when needed.
 3. It is environmentally responsible and is socially acceptable.
4. It conserves water resources and promotes self-sufficiency.
5. To landscape plants and gardens, rainwater is friendly.
6. It reduces non-point source pollution and stormwater runoff.
7. To maintain it uses simple, flexible technologies that are easy.
8. After the proper treatment, it provides safe water for human consumption.
Disadvantages:
There are the following disadvantages such as;
1. In times of dry weather or prolonged drought, it is not a dependable water
source.
2. In a low rainfall period, the system may not be able to provide water.
3. The deterioration of load-bearing slopes is caused by leakage from cisterns.
4. To public utilities, rainfall harvesting systems may reduce revenues.