FOOL PROOF TICKETING SYSTEM MANAGEMENT FOR RAILWAY

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements

for the award of

Bachelor of Engineering degree in Computer Science and

Engineering by

SINGAREDDY HRUDAI TEJASWITH REDDY

(Reg. No. 37110717)

&

PATAKAMUDI SIDHARDHA

(Reg. No. 37110550)

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
SCHOOL OF COMPUTING

SATHYABAMA
INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

(DEEMED TO BE UNIVERSITY)
Accredited with Grade “A” by NAAC
JEPPIAAR NAGAR, RAJIV GANDHI
SALAI,CHENNAI – 600 119

MARCH-2021

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that this project report is the bonafidework of SINGAREDDY
HRUDAI TEJAWITH REDDY ([Link].37110717)&PATAKAMUDI SIDHARDHA
([Link].37110550) whocarried out the project entitled “FOOL PROOF TICKETING
SYSTEM MANAGEMENT FOR RAILWAY” under my supervision from August 2020
to March 2021.

Internal Guide

Dr. A. Mary Posonia, M.E., Ph.D.,

Head of the Department

Dr. S. VIGNESHWARI, M.E., Ph.D.,

Submitted for Viva voce Examination heldon

Internal Examiner External Examiner

 DECLARATION

I, SINGAREDDY HRUDAI TEJASWITH REDDY AND PATAKAMUDI SIDHARDHA

hereby declare that the Project Report entitled “Fool Proof Ticketing System
management for Railway” is done by me under the guidance of Dr .
[Link],M.E.,PH.D., Dept of CSE at Sathyabama Institute of science and
technology is submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of
Bachelor of Engineering degree in Computer Science and Engineering.

DATE:

PLACE:CHENNAI SIGNATURE OF THE CANDIDATE

1.

2.
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am pleased to acknowledge my sincere thanks to Board of Management of

SATHYABAMA for their kind encouragement in doing this project and for completing it
successfully. I am grateful to them.

I convey my thanks to Dr. T. SASIKALA, M.E., Ph.D., Dean, school of computing and

Dr. S. VIGNESWARI, M.E., Ph.D., Head of the Department, Dept. of Computer

Science and Engineering for providing me necessary support and details at the right
time during the progressive reviews.

I would like to express my sincere and deep sense of the gratitude to my project guide
to Dr. [Link] PosoniaM.E., Ph.D., for her valuable guidance, suggestions andconstant
encouragement paved way for the successful completion of my project work.

I wish to express my thanks to all Teaching and Non-teaching staff members of the
Department of Computer Science and Engineering who were helpful in many ways
for the completion of the project.
 ABSTRACT

Railway Transport remains some of the most vital modes of travel all over the world
and especially in India. Therefore, all their operative techniques have to be simplified
for deriving the best results. These technologies were engaged for providing one of
the best services by the railway department and they provide RFID railway
reservation technology. This makes it much easier for the customers means
passengers and they help them without affecting any problems like ticketless
travelling. The main concept of implementing such a system will make the
reservation ticketing and the ticket process much easier. These types of tags are
used for the verification process and they can be used to avoid the fool proof
respectively. Here, lot of passengers are using railways and they need to be
somewhat more enriched in securities. These RFID tags are much easier to scan
and they are cheap and reusable too. These kind of technologies increases more
revenues to the government and makes the ticketing process as much as easier as
well. These RFID tag makes the exact location for the Passengers and they make
such more secure and luggage as well as possible. Here the way of using the RFID
is much more different from all the usage among the real time examples the RFID
were scanned and they check using the program which was dumped into it. By
scanning the RFID tag makes much more initial process and they are safer to use
when compare to barcode and other scanning type of process like qrcode
respectively.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter No. TITLE page no.

1. EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

1.1overview of embedded system 12

1.2 block diagram of embedded system 12

​ 1.2.1 characteristics of embedded systems 14

 1.3 power supply 16

​ 1.4 transformer 17

​ 1.5 rectifier 17

​ 1.6 filters 18

​ 1.7 registers

​ 1.8 regulators 20

​ 1.9 features and regulator description 20

2. ARDUINO AND ITS PROGRAMMING

​ 2.1 overview 29

​ 2.2 summary 30

​ 2.3 pin configuration 31

​ 2.4 communication 32

​ 2.5 arduino software 56

3. CONCLUSION AND RESULT 62

4. REFERENCES 64

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE NO. FIGURE NAME PAGE

NO.
1. GENERAL BLOCK OF POWER SUPPLY UNIT 19

2 HETEROGENEOUS ARCHITECTURE 21

3 ARDUINO NANO 30

4 PIN COFIGURATION 31

5 IR SENSORS 37

6 IR SENSOR CIRCUIT 41

7 LCD PANNEL 57

8 ARDUINO SOFTWARE 59

9 ARDUINO IDE 61
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

RFID is also known as the frequency identification device and which was in the form
of tags these are the upcoming technologies. RFID projects and these technologies
were used and they are much more efficient too. These types of rfid tags are used to
identify the radio waves automatically and to store some kind of values into it.
Generally, the rfid tag consists of the antenna which is inbuilt in the tag and which
used as the reader the chip as well as possible respectively. The RFID may consists
of two main parts like the reader part and the tag. The RFID tag and reader transfers
the message through electromagnetic waves and they have prior modules. This
RFID system uses the technology of embedded systems and they provide such an
automated ticketing system in the railways. These type of RFID project has been
implemented and they have utilised as well as possible.

Literature survey:

Transportation has become a part of the day to day life. Furthermore, it holds a
principle called "ticket" in [2]Keith E. Mayes*, Konstantinos Markantonakis, Gerhard
Hancke in transport ticketing securities and fraud controls as proposed. However, the
technology is increasing it provides more advantages of electronic ticketing, which
are both beneficial for the passengers and the government. As the authors
suggested, to bring the enormous scope to the future in the evolution of the systems
and where these are considered the fundamentals of the current society where it
satisfies the basic requirements for mobility, it also minimizes the time. Moreover,
those operations have turned the technology to close the loops in the system and
catch the frauds and tighten the security information system and reusable.
As public transportation is quite affordable, many people make a journey on a daily
basis, and there is a chance of fire accidents in the journey. In [3], C. Ananthakumar,
[Link] Selvaraj, proposed a structure where fire accidents are minimized, and loss
of damage could be covered by applying the Firesensor in the RFID module with
GSM, .where the total operation is controlled by the controller using IDE software.
This module is proposed to make the work of manual easier by an integer program
developed to formulate the subject problems to solve easier by where the system is
already provided with the algorithm module provided.
Due to the growing population, the fraud activities have been increased in the tickets
.issuing one ticket and the benefits have been used by the other members, in
[4]Sejal. S. Chhabile, Dr Ashwini Kumar Varma defined the pattern for identifying and
recognizing the documents and their classification in this model. An ANN classifier is
constructed to find the fraud within the tickets. In brief, the data set is collected with
various variables as they are simple to method. The central perspective of this is to
one should not surpass others ticket, so the details of the person all are collected and
are interlinked to each other. The program is organized for the recognization and
image processing in the system by the automated fraud detection system in the ticket
Propose the service of automatic train ticketing system by Irfan Abbas, Hamsa
Iqbal[5].by providing the architecture of printing the tickets with both QR Scanner and
Validating it and can also be checked manually which in term decreases time and
cost and would be running on automated wireless systems by the field
communication process and web-based system. In the proposed work, the ATTS
Generates tickets and validates the ticket by time and distance travelled and
measured the cost. The BTS range is limited and helpful in quoting the cost of the
ticket from the source to the destination, where the data synchronization through
Bluetooth is also made accessible due to the IoT system, where the QR code is to be
carried throughout the journey for the entry and exit into the stations.

The ticketing system based on the passenger's unique identification system

proposed by [6]Mr. Celso Furtado, Mr Jeshley Rebello, has proposed their work in
march 2017 by the RFID Ticketing System, which automatically detects the
passengers fare( Ratio frequency identification) based on unique passenger Identity.
It is a user-friendly system It automatically identifies the passenger and deducts the
fare according to the distance travelled. It reduces human errors and [Link] card
has a unique id for every tag. The RF card is allotted to every person with a fixed
balance in it, as the person has to swipe the card while entering and leaving the
metro train and deduced the balance according to the distance travelled. A Stepper
motor shows the opening and closing of the door by swiping the card. The computer
hosts a specific application that reads the data and stores the data in the hub.

The public transport, which was a step to change the world, but there was one thing
which was a traditional thing which everyone ignored by Padigala Divija[7], Venkata
Thirumala Sai Kiran, that is nothing by ticket, we can see till today we had to have a
hold a small piece of paper, and some areas like urban side, the private-public
transport can overload the passengers. After a ticket as fire so by this project, the
passengers were too helpless we had introduced a system named RFID BASED
UNIVERSAL/MULTI TRANSPORT TICKETING SYSTEM. The whole system
contains only a few smart cards, links them to your account(banking), and accesses
them. Okay, here are the few hardware things that you wanted to know
RFID(Radiofrequency identification) and another one is GSM (Global System for
Mobile Communication), and the last one is PIC(Peripheral Interface Controllers).

Due to cheaper train ticket costs, many people are inclined towards travelling by
train. Issuing tickets manually to a large number of passages is a tiresome and time
taking task. In [8], Godson Michael Proposed a model in which the commuters
purchase the seasonal tickets for a particular number of days at their discreet. This
system used AWS public cloud to make it robust and scalable. The proposed
architecture includes capturing the RFID sensors data with a raspberry pi then
sending the event data to AWS IoT. In the end, all the IoT events are processed and
fed as input to the machine learning operations to predict an output. Whenever a
commuter enters a train, the event is recorded, and the number of commuters in a
particular coach is incremented or decremented accordingly. The paper concluded
that the proposed model is efficient in issuing the tickets and also detecting ticketless
commuters.

Vijaysanthi. R [Link].[9]have proposed in their research that Raspberry-Pi can be used

with a cloud platform to obtain [Link] of Raspberry Pi with biometric
authentication and cloud platform is safe to use. Generally, biometric authentication
is utilized for confirmation of the distinctive using biological attributes. These are
verified and stored in a database. When the data is matched, then the authentication
is successful. In their research, a combination of fingerprint authentication and
storage in a cloud platform is the modern usage of technology at that time. The
various steps in this research include retrieving images from the optical sensor,
converting and storing them in a database, using Django webserver authentication of
fingerprints obtained, extracting the region of interest(ROI) from the images. This
proposed research can be functional where system security is mandatory.
The whole project is a fusion of IoT and mechanical worlds. It's like just trying to
touch the two index fingers, which are both two different worlds[10] by Amr [Link]-
Wakeel, Jin Li, Aboelmagd noureldin. This project makes our life more efficient and
more simple life, and this project is going to concentrate on things which we do not
have time to it. However, on one day it eats our time or money, and one of those
things is the road condition, see we are all in our busy lives, where we cannot go
somewhere else and complaint about it, so this project breaks the chain or block. By
the uses of Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems (MEMS) sensors which are
accelerator meter, and gyroscope sensor, and global positing sensor(GPS), which
can monitor the vehicles speed and changes in its direction of the condition within a
fraction of seconds and by marking the Multiple road anomalies(potholes), and
unsigned dangers like wild animals crossing area and accident-prone.

The primary issue is with precise, delicate trade because, without fail, the traveller
does not have precise change and even conductor. Because of that, there would be
a misfortune to the traveller on the off chance that they try not to get the specific
change back. To correct this issue, they proposed the work[11]by [Link], Hari
Hara Brahmal. The RFID cards are secure tokens that have given security
administrations to a wide scope of utilizations. The RFID card peruser is utilized to
peruse the information from the card. The RFID card peruser peruses the people
subtleties and less the specific sum with token age. Radio recurrence distinguishing
proof (RFID) is an innovation that utilizes radio frequencies to naturally recognize and
identify account numbers and subtleties needed along with gave security. It tends to
be valuable for some transportation offices which need to improve the innovation,
what's more, to fulfil the clients. RFID offers higher information stockpiling limits,
higher distinguishing proof paces, and more noteworthy quickness and exactness of
information assortment. By this framework, we are moving into the credit-only
exchanges.

These things are made out of web-empowered gadgets that utilization sensors,
installed processors and correspondence equipment all together to send/get
information from conditions[12] by Jawed Ali Toqeer Ali, Yazed Alsaawy. Plus, IoT
permits the advancement of a few regions like home to keen home, medical care to
brilliant medical care, urban communities to smart cities furthermore, some more.
The vital thought behind the IoT environment is the variety of things that brings about
a colossal number of gadgets in any case; it is essential that solitary approved clients
can have the option to access and utilize the framework. Since the majority of
correspondences between these gadgets are remote which make the framework
more helpless against various assaults, for example, snooping, message altering and
Mirai assault [4] and so on (2) Gadgets from various producers have restricted limit in
the wording of preparing, battery, and memory that do not permit to carry out
advance security arrangements. Moreover, no instrument can show the degree of
trust for each zone when an outside substance has to know before correspondence.

Existing system:
• In existing system there is no proper maintenance ticketing system, in this
system passengers won’t have ticket travelled by some reasons like time
maintenance.

Proposed system:

• RFID has many positives and as well as negatives when come to real time
applications these kind of RFID can takes place with lesser limitations
respectively. By using RFID in real time process the more kind of getting easier
data’s from the passengers through database and these kind of RFID costs very
low and they can be reusable. While the researching kind of peoples are much
easier to identify the scanning and the scanner technology is much safer and
makes much more easily when compare to others respectively. If the project is
 implemented to railway and they can be much more embedded systems and they
are very similar to the scanner technologies. This kind of Fast Ticketing process
can be implemented with the help of the RFID scanner as well as the RFID tag
into it. When compared to the other ticketing process these kind of fast and
reliable technique is much easier to implement and expecting this project can be
implemented in the railways as much as possible in 22nd country.

• Block diagram:

Hardware required:

• Arduino nano

• RFID Reader

• Tags
 • IR sensor

• Buzzer

• Display

Software used:

Arduino ide

Embedded C

Arduino C

1. EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

1.1 Overview of embedded systems

An embedded system is a special-purpose computer system designed to

perform one or a few dedicated functions, often with real-time computing constraints. It
is usually embedded as part of a complete device including hardware and mechanical
parts. In contrast, a general-purpose computer, such as a personal computer, can do
many different tasks depending on programming. Embedded systems have become
very important today as they control many of the common devices we use.

Since the embedded system is dedicated to specific tasks, design engineers

can optimize it, reducing the size and cost of the product, or increasing the reliability
and performance. Some embedded systems are mass-produced, benefiting from
economies of scale.

Physically, embedded systems range from portable devices such as digital

watches and MP3 players, to large stationary installations like traffic lights, factory
controllers, or the systems controlling nuclear power plants. Complexity varies from
low, with a single microcontroller chip, to very high with multiple units, peripherals and
networks mounted inside a large chassis or enclosure.

In general, "embedded system" is not an exactly defined term, as many systems have
some element of programmability. For example, Handheld computers share some
elements with embedded systems — such as the operating systems and
microprocessors which power them — but are not truly embedded systems, because
they allow different applications to be loaded and peripherals to be connected.

Embedded systems provide several functions

• Monitor the environment; embedded systems read data from input sensors.
This data is then processed and the results displayed in some format to a user or
users

• Control the environment; embedded systems generate and transmit commands

for actuators.

• Transform the information; embedded systems transform the data collected in

some meaningful way, such as data compression/decompression

Although interaction with the external world via sensors and actuators is an important
aspect of embedded systems, these systems also provide functionality specific to their
applications. Embedded systems typically execute applications such as control laws,
finite state machines, and signal processing algorithms. These systems must also
detect and react to faults in both the internal computing environment as well as the
surrounding electromechanical systems.

There are many categories of embedded systems, from communication devices to

home appliances to control systems. Examples include;

• Communication devices

e. g.: modems, cellular phones

• Home Appliances

e. g.: CD player, VCR, microwave oven

• Control Systems

e. g.: Automobile anti-lock braking systems, robotics, satellite control

1.2 Block diagram of an embedded system:

An embedded system usually contains an embedded processor. Many appliances that

have a digital interface -- microwaves, VCRs, cars -- utilize embedded systems. Some
embedded systems include an operating system. Others are very specialized resulting
in the entire logic being implemented as a single program. These systems are
embedded into some device for some specific purpose other than to provide general
purpose computing . A typical embedded system is shown in Fig 1.1

Fig 1.1 Block diagram of a typical embedded system

1.2.1 Characteristics of embedded systems

Embedded systems are characterized by a unique set of characteristics. Each of these

characteristics imposed a specific set of design constraints on embedded systems
designers. The challenge to designing embedded systems is to conform to the specific
set of constraints for the application.

Application Specific Systems:

Embedded systems are not general-purpose computers. Embedded system designs

are optimized for a specific application. Many of the job characteristics are known
before the hardware is designed. This allows the designer to focus on the specific
design constraints of a well-defined application. As such, there is limited user
reprogram ability. Some embedded systems, however, require the flexibility of
reprogram ability. Programmable DSPs are common for such applications.

Reactive Systems

As mentioned earlier, a typical embedded systems model responds to the environment

via sensors and control the environment using actuators. This requires embedded
systems to run at the speed of the environment. This characteristic of embedded
system is called “reactive”. Reactive computation means that the system (primarily the
software component) executes in response to external events. External events can be
either periodic or aperiodic. Periodic events make it easier to schedule processing to
guarantee performance. Aperiodic events are harder to schedule. The maximum event
arrival rate must be estimated in order to accommodate worst case situations. Most
embedded systems have a significant reactive component. One of the biggest
challenges for embedded system designers is performing an accurate worst case
design analysis on systems with statistical performance characteristics (e.g., cache
memory on a DSP or other embedded processor). Real time system operation means
that the correctness of a computation depends, in part, on the time at which it is
delivered. Systems with this requirement must often design to worst case
performance. But accurately predicting the worst case may be difficult on complicated
architectures. This often leads to overly pessimistic estimates erring on the side of
caution. Many embedded systems have a significant requirement for real time
operation in order to meet external I/O and control stability requirements. Many
real-time systems are also reactive systems.

Distributed Systems

A common characteristic of an embedded system is one that consists of

communicating processes executing on several CPUs or ASICs which are connected
by communication links. The reason for this is economy. Economical 4 8-bit
microcontrollers may be cheaper than a 32-bit processors. Even after adding the cost
of the communication links, this approach may be preferable. In this approach, multiple
processors are usually required to handle multiple time-critical tasks. Devices under
control of embedded systems may also be physically distributed.

Heterogeneous Architectures

Embedded systems often are composed of heterogeneous architectures (Fig 1.2).

They may contain different processors in the same system solution. They may also be
mixed signal systems. The combination of I/O interfaces, local and remote memories,
and sensors and actuators makes embedded system design truly unique. Embedded
systems also have tight design constraints, and heterogeneity provides better design
flexibility.

Fig 1.2 Embedded Systems having Heterogeneous Architectures

Harsh environment

Many embedded systems do not operate in a controlled environment. Excessive heat

is often a problem, especially in applications involving combustion (e.g., many
transportation applications). Additional problems can be caused for embedded
computing by a need for protection from vibration, shock, lightning, power supply
fluctuations, water, corrosion, fire, and general physical abuse.

System safety and reliability

As embedded system complexity and computing power continue to grow, they are
starting to control more and more of the safety aspects of the overall system. These
safety measures may be in the form of software as well as hardware control.
Mechanical safety backups are normally activated when the computer system loses
control in order to safely shut down system operation. Software safety and reliability is
a bigger issue. Software doesn't normally "break" in the sense of hardware. However
software may be so complex that a set of unexpected circumstances can cause
software failures leading to unsafe situations. Discussion of this topic is outside the
scope of this book, but the challenges for embedded designers include designing
reliable software and building cheap, available systems using unreliable components.
The main challenge for embedded system designers is to obtain low-cost reliability
with minimal redundancy.

Control of physical systems

One of the main reasons for embedding a computer is to interact with the environment.
This is often done by monitoring and controlling external machinery. Embedded
computers transform the analog signals from sensors into digital form for processing.
Outputs must be transformed back to analog signal levels. When controlling physical
equipment, large current loads may need to be switched in order to operate motors
and other actuators. To meet these needs, embedded systems may need large
computer circuit boards with many non-digital components. Embedded system
designers must carefully balance system tradeoffs among analog components, power,
mechanical, network, and digital hardware with corresponding software.

Small and low weight

Many embedded computers are physically located within some larger system. The
form factor for the embedded system may be dictated by aesthetics. For example, the
form factor for a missile may have to fit inside the nose of the missile. One of the
challenges for embedded systems designers is to develop non-rectangular geometries
for certain solutions. Weight can also be a critical constraint. Embedded automobile
control systems, for example, must be light weight for fuel economy. Portable CD
players must be light weight for portability purposes.

Cost sensitivity

Cost is an issue in most systems, but the sensitivity to cost changes can vary
dramatically in embedded systems. This is mainly due to the effect of computer costs
have on profitability and is more a function of the proportion of cost changes compared
to the total system cost.

Power management

Embedded systems have strict constraints on power. Given the portability

requirements of many embedded systems, the need to conserve power is important to
maintain battery life as long as possible. Minimization of heat production is another
obvious concern for embedded systems.

1.3 POWER SUPPLY

All electronic circuits works only in low DC voltage, so we need a power supply unit
to provide the appropriate voltage supply for their proper functioning .This unit
consists of transformer, rectifier, filter & regulator. AC voltage of typically 230volts
rms is connected to a transformer voltage down to the level to the desired ac
voltage. A diode rectifier that provides the full wave rectified voltage that is initially
filtered by a simple capacitor filter to produce a dc voltage. This resulting dc
voltage usually has some ripple or ac voltage variation . A regulator circuit can
use this dc input to provide dc voltage that not only has much less ripple voltage but
also remains the same dc value even the dc voltage varies some what, or the load
connected to the output dc voltages changes.

Fig [Link] Block Of Power Supply Unit

1.4 TRANSFORMER:

A transformer is a static piece of which electric power in one circuit is transformed into
electric power of same frequency in another circuit. It can raise or lower the voltage in
the circuit, but with a corresponding decrease or increase in current. It works with the
principle of mutual induction. In our project we are using a step down transformer to
providing a necessary supply for the electronic circuits. Here we step down a 230volts
ac into 12volts ac.

1.5 RECTIFIER:

A dc level obtained from a sinusoidal input can be improved 100% using a process
called full wave rectification. Here in our project for full wave rectification we use bridge
rectifier. From the basic bridge configuration we see that two diodes(say D2 & D3) are
conducting while the other two diodes (D1 & D4) are in off state during the period t = 0
to T/[Link] for the negative cycle of the input the conducting diodes are D1 &
D4 .Thus the polarity across the load is the same.

In the bridge rectifier the diodes may be of variable types like 1N4001,
1N4003, 1N4004, 1N4005, IN4007 etc.… can be used. But here we use 1N4007,
because it can withstand up to 1000v.

1.6 FILTERS:

In order to obtain a dc voltage of 0 Hz, we have to use a low pass filter. So that a
capacitive filter circuit is used where a capacitor is connected at the rectifier output& a
dc is obtained across it. The filtered waveform is essentially a dc voltage with
negligible ripples & it is ultimately fed to the load.
1.7 REGISTERS:

The controller IC has two 8 bit registers, an instruction register (IR) and a
data register (DR). The IR stores the instruction codes and address information for
display data RAM (DD RAM) and character generator RAM (CG RAM). The IR can be
written, but not read by the MPU.

The DR temporally stores data to be written to /read from the DD RAM or CG RAM.
The data written to DR by the MPU, is automatically written to the DD RAM or CG
RAM as an internal operation.

When an address code is written to IR, the data is automatically transferred from the
DD RAM or CG RAM to the DR. data transfer between the MPU is then completed
when the MPU reads the DR. likewise, for the next MPU read of the DR, data in DD
RAM or CG RAM at the address is sent to the DR automatically. Similarly, for the MPU
write of the DR, the next DD RAM or CG RAM address is selected for the write
operation.

The dot-matrix liquid crystal display controller and driver LSI displays alphanumeric,
Japanese kana characters, and symbols. It can be configured to drive a dot-matrix
liquid crystal display under the control of a 4- or 8-bit microprocessor. Since all the
functions such as display RAM, character generator, and liquid crystal driver, required
for driving a dot-matrix liquid crystal display are internally provided on one chip, a
minimal system can be interfaced with this controller/driver

1.8 REGULATORS:

The output voltage from the capacitor is more filtered & finally regulated. The voltage
regulator is a device, which maintains the output voltage constant irrespective of the
change in supply variations, load variations & temperature changes. Here we use fixed
voltage regulator namely [Link] IC LM7805 is a +5v regulator which is used for
microcontroller.

1.9 FEATURES AND DESCRIPTION OF REGULATORS

• Output Current up to 1A

• Output Voltages of 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 15, 18, 24V

• Thermal Overload Protection

• Short Circuit Protection

• Output Transistor Safe Operating Area Protection

ARDUINO UNO AND ITS PROGRAMMING

Arduino is a tool for making computers that can sense and control more of the
physical world than your desktop computer. It's an open-source physical computing
platform based on a simple microcontroller board, and a development environment
for writing software for the board.

Arduino can be used to develop interactive objects, taking inputs from a variety of
switches or sensors, and controlling a variety of lights, motors, and other physical
outputs. Arduino projects can be stand-alone, or they can be communicate with
software running on your computer. The boards can be assembled by hand or
purchased preassembled; the open-source IDE can be downloaded for free.

The Arduino programming language is an implementation of Wiring, a similar

physical computing platform, which is based on the Processing multimedia
programming environment.

Arduino nano:
 2.1 Overview
The Arduino microcontroller is an easy to use yet powerful single board computer
that has gained considerable traction in the hobby and professional market. The
Arduino is open-source, which means hardware is reasonably priced and
development software is free. This guide is for students in ME 2011, or students
anywhere who are confronting the Arduino for the first time. For advanced Arduino
users, prowl the web; there are lots of resources.

This guide covers the Arduino Uno board (Spark fun DEV-09950, $29.95), a good
choice for students and educators. With the Arduino board, you can write programs
and create interface circuits to read switches and other sensors, and to control
motors and lights with very little effort. Many of the pictures and drawings in this
guide were taken from the documentation on This is what the Arduino board looks
like.
The Duemilanove board features an Atmel ATmega328 microcontroller operating at
5 V with 2 Kb of RAM, 32 Kb of flash memory for storing programs and 1 Kb of
EEPROM for storing parameters. The clock speed is 16 MHz, which translates to
about executing about 300,000 lines of C source code per second. The board has 14
digital I/O pins and 6 analog input pins. There is a USB connector for talking to the
host computer and a DC power jack for connecting an external 6-20 V power source,
for example a 9 V battery, when running a program while not connected to the host
computer. Headers are provided for interfacing to the I/O pins using 22 g solid wire
or header connectors.

The Arduino programming language is a simplified version of C/C++. If you know C,

programming the Arduino will be familiar. If you do not know C, no need to worry as
only a few commands are needed to perform useful functions.
An important feature of the Arduino is that you can create a control program on the
host PC, download it to the Arduino and it will run automatically. Remove the USB
cable connection to the PC, and the program will still run from the top each time you
push the reset button. Remove the battery and put the Arduino board in a closet for
six months. When you reconnect the battery, the last program you stored will run.
This means that you connect the board to the host PC to develop and debug your
program, but once that is done, you no longer need the PC to run the program.

The Arduino Uno is a microcontroller board based on the [Link] has 14

digital input/output pins (of which 6 can be used as PWM outputs), 6 analog inputs, a
16 MHz ceramic resonator, a USB connection, a power jack, an ICSP header, and a
reset button. It contains everything needed to support the microcontroller; simply
connect it to a computer with a USB cable or power it with a AC-to-DC adapter or
battery to get started.

The Uno differs from all preceding boards in that it does not use the FTDI
USB-to-serial driver chip. Instead, it features the Atmega16U2 (Atmega8U2 up to
version R2) programmed as a USB-to-serial converter.

2.2 Summary:

Microcontroller atmega328

Operating voltage 5v

Input voltage (recommended) 7-12v

Input voltage (limits) 6-20v

Digital i/o pins 14 (of which 6 provide pwm output)

Analog input pins 6

Dc current per i/o pin 40 ma

Dc current for 3.3v pin 50 ma

Flash memory 32 kb (atmega328) of which 0.5 kb used by bootloader

Sram 2 kb (atmega328)

Eeprom 1 kb (atmega328)

Clock speed 16 mhz

2.3 Pin Configuration

The Arduino Uno can be powered via the USB connection or with an external power
supply. The power source is selected automatically.

External (non-USB) power can come either from an AC-to-DC adapter (wall- wart) or
battery. The adapter can be connected by plugging a 2.1mm center-positive plug into
the board's power jack. Leads from a battery can be inserted in the Gnd and Vin pin
headers of the POWER connector.

The board can operate on an external supply of 6 to 20 volts. If supplied with less
than 7V, however, the 5V pin may supply less than five volts and the board may be
unstable. If using more than 12V, the voltage regulator may overheat and damage
the board. The recommended range is 7 to 12 volts.

The power pins are as follows:

● VIN. The input voltage to the Arduino board when it's using an external power
source (asopposed to 5 volts from the USB connection or other regulated power
source). You can supply voltage through this pin, or, if supplying voltage via the
power jack, access it through this pin.

● 5V. this pin outputs a regulated 5V from the regulator on the board. The board
can besupplied with power either from the DC power jack (7 - 12V), the USB
connector (5V), or the VIN pin of the board (7-12V). Supplying voltage via the 5V or
3.3V pins bypasses the regulator, and can damage your board.

● 3V3. A 3.3 volt supply generated by the on-board regulator. Maximum current
draw is 50mA.
●GND. Ground pins.

● IOREF. This pin on the Arduino board provides the voltage reference with
which themicrocontroller operates. A properly configured shield can read the IOREF
pin voltage and select the appropriate power source or enable voltage translators on
the outputs for working with the 5V or 3.3V.

Memory

The ATmega328 has 32 KB (with 0.5 KB used for the bootloader). It also has 2 KB of
SRAM and 1 KB of EEPROM.

Input and Output

Each of the 14 digital pins on the Uno can be used as an input or output, using
pinMode(), digital Write( ), and digital Read( ) functions. They operate at 5 volts.
Each pin can provide or receive a maximum of 40 mA and has an internal pull- up
resistor (disconnected by default) of 20-50 kohms. In addition, some pins have
specialized functions:

• Serial: 0 (RX) and 1 (TX). Used to receive (RX) and Trans mit (TX) TTL serial
data.

These pins are connected to the corresponding pins of the ATmega8U2 USB-to- TTL
Serial chip.

● External Interrupts: 2 and 3. These pins can be configured to trigger an

interrupt on a lowvalue, a rising or falling edge, or a change in value. See the attach
Interrupt () function for details.

●PWM: 3, 5, 6, 9, 10, and 11. Provide 8-bit PWM output with the analog Write ()
function.

● SPI: 10 (SS), 11 (MOSI), 12 (MISO), 13 (SCK). These pins support SPI

communicationusing the SPI library.

● LED: 13. There is a built- in LED connected to digital pin 13. When the pin is
HIGH value,the LED is on, when the pin is LOW, it's off.

The Uno has 6 analog inputs, labeled A0 through A5, each of which provide 10 bits
of resolution (i.e. 1024 different values). By default they measure from ground to 5
volts, though is it possible to change the upper end of their range using the AREF pin
and the analog Reference () function. Additionally, some pins have specialized
functionality:

• TWI: A4 or SDA pin and A5 or SCL pin. Support TWI communication using the
Wire library.

There are a couple of other pins on the board:

• AREF. Reference voltage for the analog inputs. Used with analog Reference ().

Reset. Bring this line LOW to reset the microcontroller. Typically used to add a reset
buttonto shields which block the one on the board.

2.4 Communication

Microcontrollers depend on a host computer for developing and compiling programs.

The software used on the host computer is known as an integrated development
environment, or IDE. For the Arduino, the development environment is based on the
open source Processing platform ([Link]) which is described by its
creators as a “programming language and environment for people who want to
program images, animation, and interactions.“ The Arduino programming language
leverages an open source project known as Wiring ([Link]). The Arduino
language is based on good old- fashioned C. If you are unfamiliar with this language,
don’t worry; it’s not hard to learn, and the Arduino IDE provides some feedback when
you make mistakes in your programs.

The Arduino Uno has a number of facilities for communicating with a computer,
another Arduino, or other microcontrollers. The ATmega328 provides UART TTL
(5V) serial communication, which is available on digital pins 0 (RX) and 1 (TX). An
ATmega16U2 on the board channels this serial communication over USB and
appears as a virtual com port to software on the computer. The '16U2 firmware uses
the standard USB COM drivers, and no external driver is needed. However, on
Windows, a inf file is required. The Arduino software includes a serial monitor which
allows simple textual data to be sent to and from the Arduino board. The RX and TX
LEDs on the board will flash when data is being transmitted via the USB-to-serial
chip and USB connection to the computer (but not for serial communication on pins 0
and 1).

A Software Serial library allows for serial communication on any of the Uno's digital
pins. The ATmega328 also supports I2C (TWI) and SPI communication. The Arduino
software includes a Wire library to simplify use of the I2C bus; see the
documentation for details. For SPI communication, use the SPI library.

As you go through the list of programming statements available in the Arduino IDE
(choose Help->Reference), you might think there isn’t much power for doing t hings
like running servos, operating stepper motors, reading potentiometers, or displaying
text on an LCD. Like most any language based on C, the Arduino supports the
notion of “libraries” code

Repositories that extend core programming functionality. Libraries let you re- use
code without having to physically copy and paste it into all your programs. The
standard Arduino software installation comes with several libraries you may use, and
you can download others from the Arduino support pages and from third-party
websites that publish Arduino library code. A good example of a library you’ll use
with the Robot and likely many other robot projects is

Servo. This library allows you to connect one or more hobby R/C servos to the
Arduino’s digital I/O pins. The Servo library comes with the standard Arduino
installation package Library->Servo. This adds the line

#include <Servo.h>

Which tells the Arduino IDE that you wish to include the Servo library in your sketch.
With the functionality of the library now available to you, you can use its various
functions to control one or more servos. For example, you can use the write function
to rotate a servo to a specific position, from 0 to 180 degrees. The following code

[Link](90);

Moves a servo to its midpoint, or 90 degree position. Structurally, Arduino sketches

are very straightforward and are pretty easy to read and understand. The Arduino
program contains two main parts: setup () and loop (). These are programming
functions that do what their names suggest: setup () sets up the Arduino hardware,
such as specifying which I/O lines you plan to use, and whether

They are inputs or outputs. The loop () function is repeated endlessly when the
Arduino is operating.

Arduino IDE (Integrated development environment) is used to write the program

and dump into the Arduino board

Introduction

Infrared technology addresses a wide variety of wireless applications. The main

areas are sensing and remote controls. In the electromagnetic spectrum, the infrared
portion is divided into three regions: near infrared region, mid infrared region and far
infrared region.

The wavelengths of these regions and their applications are shown below.

● Near infrared region — 700 nm to 1400 nm — IR sensors, fiber optic

● Mid infrared region — 1400 nm to 3000 nm — Heat sensing

● Far infrared region — 3000 nm to 1 mm — Thermal imaging

The frequency range of infrared is higher than microwave and lesser than visible
light.

For optical sensing and optical communication, photo optics technologies are used in
the near infrared region as the light is less complex than RF when implemented as a
source of signal. Optical wireless communication is done with IR data transmission
for short range applications.
An infrared sensor emits and/or detects infrared radiation to sense its surroundings.

The working of any Infrared sensor is governed by three laws: Planck’s Radiation
law, Stephen – Boltzmann law and Wien’s Displacement law.

Planck’s law states that “every object emits radiation at a temperature not equal
to 00K”. Stephen – Boltzmann law states that “at all wavelengths, the total energy
emitted by a black body is proportional to the fourth power of the absolute
temperature”. According to Wien’s Displacement law, “the radiation curve of a black
body for different temperatures will reach its peak at a wavelength inversely
proportional to the temperature”.

The basic concept of an Infrared Sensor which is used as Obstacle detector is to

transmit an infrared signal, this infrared signal bounces from the surface of an object
and the signal is received at the infrared receiver.

There are five basic elements used in a typical infrared detection system: an infrared
source, a transmission medium, optical component, infrared detectors or receivers
and signal processing. Infrared lasers and Infrared LED’s of specific wavelength can
be used as infrared sources. The three main types of media used for infrared
transmission are vacuum, atmosphere and optical fibers. Optical components are
used to focus the infrared radiation or to limit the spectral response. Optical lenses
made of Quartz, Germanium and Silicon are used to focus the infrared radiation.
Infrared receivers can be photodiodes, phototransistors etc. some important
specifications of infrared receivers are photosensitivity, detectivity and noise
equivalent power. Signal processing is done by amplifiers as the output of infrared
detectors is very small.

Types of IR Sensors

Infrared sensors can be passive or active. Passive infrared sensors are basically
Infrared detectors. Passive infrared sensors do not use any infrared source and
detects energy emitted by obstacles in the field of view. They are of two types:
quantum and thermal. Thermal infrared sensors use infrared energy as the source of
heat and are independent of wavelength. Thermocouples, pyro electric detectors and
bolometers are the common types of thermal infrared detectors.

Quantum type infrared detectors offer higher detection performance and are faster
than thermal type infrared detectors. The photosensitivity of quantum type detectors
is wavelength dependent. Quantum type detectors are further classified into two
types: intrinsic and extrinsic types. Intrinsic type quantum detectors are
photoconductive cells and photovoltaic cells.

Active infrared sensors consist of two elements: infrared source and infrared
detector. Infrared sources include an LED or infrared laser diode. Infrared detectors
include photodiodes or phototransistors. The energy emitted by the infrared source is
reflected by an object and falls on the infrared detector.

IR Transmitter
Infrared Transmitter is a light emitting diode (LED) which emits infrared radiations.
Hence, they are called IR LED’s. Even though an IR LED looks like a normal LED,
the radiation emitted by it is invisible to the human eye.

The picture of a typical Infrared LED is shown below.

There are different types of infrared transmitters depending on their wavelengths,

output power and response time.

A simple infrared transmitter can be constructed using an infrared LED, a current

limiting resistor and a power supply. The schematic of a typical IR transmitter is
shown below.
When operated at a supply of 5V, the IR transmitter consumes about 3 to 5 mA of
current. Infrared transmitters can be modulated to produce a particular frequency of
infrared light. The most commonly used modulation is OOK (ON – OFF – KEYING)
modulation.

IR transmitters can be found in several applications. Some applications require

infrared heat and the best infrared source is infrared transmitter. When infrared
emitters are used with Quartz, solar cells can be made.

IR Receiver

Infrared receivers are also called as infrared sensors as they detect the radiation
from an IR transmitter. IR receivers come in the form of photodiodes and
phototransistors. Infrared Photodiodes are different from normal photo diodes as
they detect only infrared radiation. The picture of a typical IR receiver or a
photodiode is shown below.
Different types of IR receivers exist based on the wavelength, voltage, package, etc.
When used in an infrared transmitter – receiver combination, the wavelength of the
receiver should match with that of the transmitter.

A typical infrared receiver circuit using a phototransistor is shown below.

It consists of an IR phototransistor, a diode, a MOSFET, a potentiometer and an
LED. When the phototransistor receives any infrared radiation, current flows through
it and MOSFET turns on. This in turn lights up the LED which acts as a load. The
potentiometer is used to control the sensitivity of the phototransistor.

Principle of Working

The principle of an IR sensor working as an Object Detection Sensor can be

explained using the following figure. An IR sensor consists of an IR LED and an IR
Photodiode; together they are called as Photo – Coupler or Opto – Coupler.

When the IR transmitter emits radiation, it reaches the object and some of the
radiation reflects back to the IR receiver. Based on the intensity of the reception by
the IR receiver, the output of the sensor is defined.
Obstacle Sensing Circuit or IR Sensor Circuit

A typical IR sensing circuit is shown below.

It consists of an IR LED, a photodiode, a potentiometer, an IC Operational amplifier

and an LED.

IR LED emits infrared light. The Photodiode detects the infrared light. An IC Op –
Amp is used as a voltage comparator. The potentiometer is used to calibrate the
output of the sensor according to the requirement.

When the light emitted by the IR LED is incident on the photodiode after hitting an
object, the resistance of the photodiode falls down from a huge value. One of the
input of the op – amp is at threshold value set by the potentiometer. The other input
to the op-amp is from the photodiode’s series resistor. When the incident radiation is
more on the photodiode, the voltage drop across the series resistor will be high. In
the IC, both the threshold voltage and the voltage across the series resistor are
compared. If the voltage across the resistor series to photodiode is greater than that
of the threshold voltage, the output of the IC Op – Amp is high. As the output of the
IC is connected to an LED, it lightens up. The threshold voltage can be adjusted by
adjusting the potentiometer depending on the environmental conditions.

The positioning of the IR LED and the IR Receiver is an important factor. When the
IR LED is held directly in front of the IR receiver, this setup is called Direct Incidence.
In this case, almost the entire radiation from the IR LED will fall on the IR receiver.
Hence there is a line of sight communication between the infrared transmitter and
the receiver. If an object falls in this line, it obstructs the radiation from reaching the
receiver either by reflecting the radiation or absorbing the radiation.

Distinguishing Between Black and White Colours

It is universal that black colour absorbs the entire radiation incident on it and white
colour reflects the entire radiation incident on it. Based on this principle, the second
positioning of the sensor couple can be made. The IR LED and the photodiode are
placed side by side. When the IR transmitter emits infrared radiation, since there is
no direct line of contact between the transmitter and receiver, the emitted radiation
must reflect back to the photodiode after hitting any object. The surface of the object
can be divided into two types: reflective surface and non-reflective surface. If the
surface of the object is reflective in nature i.e. it is white or other light color, most of
the radiation incident on it will get reflected back and reaches the photodiode.
Depending on the intensity of the radiation reflected back, current flows in the
photodiode.
If the surface of the object is non-reflective in nature i.e. it is black or other dark color,
it absorbs almost all the radiation incident on it. As there is no reflected radiation,
there is no radiation incident on the photodiode and the resistance of the photodiode
remains higher allowing no current to flow. This situation is similar to there being no
object at all.

The pictorial representation of the above scenarios is shown below.

The positioning and enclosing of the IR transmitter and Receiver is very important.
Both the transmitter and the receiver must be placed at a certain angle, so that the
detection of an object happens properly. This angle is the directivity of the sensor
which is +/- 45 degrees.

Radio frequency identification (RFID) is a form of wireless communication that

uses radio waves to identify and track objects. RFID takes the barcoding concept
and digitizes it for the modern world providing the ability to:

● Uniquely identify an individual item beyond just its product type

● Identify items without direct line-of-sight

● Identify many items (up to 1,000s) simultaneously

● Identify items within a vicinity of between a few centimetres to several meters

An RFID system has readers and tags that communicate with each other by radio.
RFID tags are so small and require so little power that they don’t even need a battery
to store information and exchange data with readers. This makes it easy and cheap
to apply tags to all kinds of things that people would like to identify or track.

Why Use RFID?

RFID technology has the capability to both greatly enhance and protect the lives of
consumers, and also revolutionize the way companies do business. As the most
flexible auto-identification technology, RFID can be used to track and monitor the
physical world automatically and with accuracy.

RFID can tell you what an object is, where it is, and even its condition, which is why
it is integral to the development of the Internet of Things—a globally interconnected
web of objects allowing the physical world itself to become an information system,
automatically sensing what is happening, sharing related data, and responding.

RFID use is increasing rapidly with the capability to “tag” any item with an
inexpensive communications chip and then read that tag with a reader. Endless
applications range from supply chain management to asset tracking to authentication
of frequently counterfeited pharmaceuticals. Applications are limited, in fact, only by
the imagination of the user.
​RFID Applications

RFID can help:

● Automate inventory and asset-tracking in healthcare, manufacturing, retail, and

business sectors

● Identify the source of products, enabling intelligent recall of defective or

dangerous items, such as tainted foods, defective toys, and expired or
compromised medication

● Prevent use of counterfeit products in the supply chain

● Improve shopping experience for consumers, with fewer out-of-stock items and
easier returns

● Provide visibility into the supply chain, yielding a more efficient distribution
channel and reduced business costs

● Decrease business revenue lost to theft or inaccurate accounting of goods

● Improve civilian security through better cargo monitoring at ports

 ● Wirelessly lock, unlock and configure electronic devices

● Enable access control of certain areas or devices

Whatever the application, RFID has the potential to increase efficiency of operations,
improve asset visibility and traceability, decrease reliance on manual processes,
reduce operations costs, and provide useful data for business analytics.

​A basic RFID solution includes:

Tag

● Tag chips or integrated circuits (ICs)

● Tag antennas

Reader

● Reader antenna

● Reader control & application software

In a basic RFID system, tags are attached to all items that are to be tracked. These
tags are made from a tiny tag-chip, sometimes called an integrated circuit (IC), that
is connected to an antenna that can be built into many different kinds of tags
including apparel hang tags, labels, and security tags, as well as a wide variety of
industrial asset tags. The tag chip contains memory which stores the product's
electronic product code (EPC) and other variable information so that it can be read
and tracked by RFID readers anywhere.

An RFID reader is a network connected device (fixed or mobile) with an antenna that
sends power as well as data and commands to the tags. The RFID reader acts like
an access point for RFID tagged items so that the tags' data can be made available
to business applications.
​RFID Tags

An RFID tag is comprised of an integrated circuit (called an IC or chip) attached to

an antenna that has been printed, etched, stamped or vapor-deposited onto a mount
which is often a paper substrate or PolyEthylene Therephtalate (PET). The chip and
antenna combo, called an inlay, is then converted or sandwiched between a printed
label and its adhesive backing or inserted into a more durable structure.

​Tag Chip

The tag's chip or integrated circuit (IC) delivers performance, memory and extended
features to the tag. The chip is pre-programmed with a tag identifier (TID), a unique
serial number assigned by the chip manufacturer, and includes a memory bank to
store the items' unique tracking identifier (called an electronic product code or EPC).

​Electronic Product Code (EPC)

The electronic product code (EPC) stored in the tag chip's memory is written to the
tag by an RFID printer and takes the form of a 96-bit string of data. The first eight
bits are a header which identifies the version of the protocol. The next 28 bits identify
the organization that manages the data for this tag; the organization number is
assigned by the EPCglobal consortium. The next 24 bits are an object class,
identifying the kind of product; the last 36 bits are a unique serial number for a
particular tag. These last two fields are set by the organization that issued the tag.
The total electronic product code number can be used as a key into a global
database to uniquely identify that particular product.

​Tag Antennas

Tag antennas collect energy and channel it to the chip to turn it on. Generally, the
larger the tag antenna's area, the more energy it will be able to collect and channel
toward the tag chip, and the further read range the tag will have.

There is no perfect antenna for all applications. It is the application that defines the
antenna specifications. Some tags might be optimized for a particular frequency
band, while others might be tuned for good performance when attached to materials
that may not normally work well for wireless communication (certain liquids and
metals, for example). Antennas can be made from a variety of materials; they can be
printed, etched, or stamped with conductive ink, or even vapor deposited onto labels.

Tags that have only a single antenna are not as reliable as tags with multiple
antennas. With a single antenna, a tag's orientation can result in “dead zones”, or
areas on the tag where incoming signals cannot be easily harvested to provide
sufficient energy to power on the chip and communicate with the reader. A tag with
dual antennas is able to eliminate these dead zones and increase its readability but
requires a specialized chip.

​RFID Readers

An RFID reader, also known as an interrogator, is a device that provides the

connection between the tag data and the enterprise system software that needs the
information. The reader communicates with tags that are within its field of operation,
performing any number of tasks including simple continuous inventorying, filtering
(searching for tags that meet certain criteria), writing (or encoding) to selected tags,
etc.

The reader uses an attached antenna to capture data from tags. It then passes the
data to a computer for processing. Just like RFID tags, there are many different sizes
and types of RFID readers. Readers can be affixed in a stationary position in a store
or factory, or integrated into a mobile device such as a portable, handheld scanner.
Readers can also be embedded in electronic equipment or devices, and in vehicles.

​Reader Antennas

RFID readers and reader antennas work together to read tags. Reader antennas
convert electrical current into electromagnetic waves that are then radiated into
space where they can be received by a tag antenna and converted back to electrical
current. Just like tag antennas, there is a large variety of reader antennas and
optimal antenna selection varies according to the solution's specific application and
environment.
The two most common antenna types are linear- and circular-polarized antennas.
Antennas that radiate linear electric fields have long ranges, and high levels of power
that enable their signals to penetrate through different materials to read tags. Linear
antennas are sensitive to tag orientation; depending on the tag angle or placement,
linear antennas can have a difficult time reading tags. Conversely, antennas that
radiate circular fields are less sensitive to orientation, but are not able to deliver as
much power as linear antennas.

Choice of antenna is also determined by the distance between the RFID reader and
the tags that it needs to read. This distance is called read range. Reader antennas
operate in either a "near-field" (short range) or "far-field" (long range). In near-field
applications, the read range is less than 30 cm and the antenna uses magnetic
coupling so the reader and tag can transfer power. In near-field systems, the
readability of the tags is not affected by the presence of dielectrics such as water
and metal in the field.

In far-field applications, the range between the tag and reader is greater than 30 cm
and can be up to several tens of meters. Far-field antennas utilize electromagnetic
coupling and dielectrics can weaken communication between the reader and tags.

​Reader Control and Application Software

Reader control and application software, also known as middleware, helps connect
RFID readers with the applications they support. The middleware sends control
commands to the reader and receives tag data from the reader.

​Creating an RFID Solution

Deploying an RFID system necessitates multiple actors and many different

components. Typically, installing a system requires basic hardware-including tag
chips, tag antennas, readers, and reader antennas-as well as reader control and
application software, and solution providers to put it all together. When all of these
components come together, an infinite number of creative applications are possible.
RFID system applications can help improve the quality of business operations,
inventory and customer experience in a variety of industries.

Frequency refers to the size of the radio waves used to communicate between RFID
system components. RFID systems throughout the world operate in low frequency
(LF), high frequency (HF) and ultra-high frequency (UHF) bands. Radio waves
behave differently at each of these frequencies with advantages and disadvantages
associated with using each frequency band.

If an RFID system operates at a lower frequency, it has a shorter read range and
slower data read rate, but increased capabilities for reading near or on metal or liquid
surfaces. If a system operates at a higher frequency, it generally has faster data
transfer rates and longer read ranges than lower frequency systems, but more
sensitivity to radio wave interference caused by liquids and metals in the
environment.

​LF RFID

The LF band covers frequencies from 30 KHz to 300 KHz. Typically LF RFID
systems operate at 125 KHz, although there are some that operate at 134 KHz. This
frequency band provides a short read range of 10 cm, and has slower read speed
than the higher frequencies, but is not very sensitive to radio wave interference.

LF RFID applications include access control and livestock tracking.

Standards for LF animal-tracking systems are defined in ISO 14223, and ISO/IEC
18000-2. The LF spectrum is not considered a truly global application because of
slight differences in frequency and power levels throughout the world.

​HF RFID
The HF band ranges from 3 to 30 MHz. Most HF RFID systems operate at 13.56
MHz with read ranges between 10 cm and 1 m. HF systems experience moderate
sensitivity to interference.

HF RFID is commonly used for ticketing, payment, and data transfer applications.

There are several HF RFID standards in place, such as the ISO 15693 standard for
tracking items, and the ECMA-340 and ISO/IEC 18092 standards for Near Field
Communication (NFC), a shortrange technology that is commonly used for data
exchange between devices. Other HF standards include the ISO/IEC 14443 A and
ISO/IEC 14443 standards for MIFARE technology, which used in smart cards and
proximity cards, and the JIS X 6319-4 for FeliCa, which is a smart card system
commonly used in electronic money cards.

​UHF RFID

The UHF frequency band covers the range from 300 MHz to 3 GHz. Systems
complying with the UHF Gen2 standard for RFID use the 860 to 960 MHz band.
While there is some variance in frequency from region to region, UHF Gen2 RFID
systems in most countries operate between 900 and 915 MHz.

The read range of passive UHF systems can be as long as 12 m, and UHF RFID has
a faster data transfer rate than LF or HF. UHF RFID is the most sensitive to
interference, but many UHF product manufacturers have found ways of designing
tags, antennas, and readers to keep performance high even in difficult environments.
Passive UHF tags are easier and cheaper to manufacture than LF and HF tags.

UHF RFID is used in a wide variety of applications, ranging from retail inventory
management, to pharmaceutical anti-counterfeiting, to wireless device configuration.
The bulk of new RFID projects are using UHF opposed to LF or HF, making UHF the
fastest growing segment of the RFID market.

The UHF frequency band is regulated by a single global standard called the
ECPglobal Gen2 (ISO 18000-6C) UHF standard.
 UHF HF and LF

● Single worldwide Gen2 ● Multiple competing standards

standard ● HF-based NFC for secure payment
● 20x the range and speed of HF ● Labels, cards, inlays cost 50¢–$2
● Labels cost 5¢–15¢ in 2012 ● Used in immobilizers, ticketing,
● The technology for item tagging payment

​Passive, Active, and BAP RFID Systems

​Active RFID Systems

In active RFID systems, tags have their own transmitter and power source. Usually,
the power source is a battery. Active tags broadcast their own signal to transmit the
information stored on their microchips.

Active RFID systems typically operate in the ultra-high frequency (UHF) band and
offer a range of up to 100 m. In general, active tags are used on large objects, such
as rail cars, big reusable containers, and other assets that need to be tracked over
long distances.

There are two main types of active tags: transponders and

beacons. Transponders are “woken up” when they receive a radio signal from a
reader, and then power on and respond by transmitting a signal back. Because
transponders do not actively radiate radio waves until they receive a reader signal,
they conserve battery life.

Beacons are used in most real-time locating systems (RTLS), in order to track the
precise location of an asset continuously. Unlike transponders, beacons are not
powered on by the reader’s signal. Instead, they emit signals at pre-set intervals.
Depending on the level of locating accuracy required, beacons can be set to emit
signals every few seconds, or once a day. Each beacon’s signal is received by
reader antennas that are positioned around the perimeter of the area being
monitored, and communicates the tag’s ID information and position.
​Passive RFID Systems

In passive RFID systems, the reader and reader antenna send a radio signal to the
tag. The RFID tag then uses the transmitted signal to power on, and reflect energy
back to the reader.

Passive RFID systems can operate in the low frequency (LF), high frequency
(HF) or ultra-high frequency (UHF) radio bands. As passive system ranges are
limited by the power of the tag’s backscatter (the radio signal reflected from the tag
back to the reader), they are typically less than 10 m. Because passive tags do not
require a power source or transmitter, and only require a tag chip and antenna, they
are cheaper, smaller, and easier to manufacture than active tags.

Passive tags can be packaged in many different ways, depending on the specific
RFID application requirements. For instance, they may be mounted on a substrate,
or sandwiched between an adhesive layer and a paper label to create smart RFID
labels. Passive tags may also be embedded in a variety of devices or packages to
make the tag resistant to extreme temperatures or harsh chemicals.

Passive RFID solutions are useful for many applications, and are commonly
deployed to track goods in the supply chain, to inventory assets in the retail industry,
to authenticate products such as pharmaceuticals, and to embed RFID capability in a
variety of devices. Passive RFID can even be used in warehouses and distribution
centers, in spite of its shorter range, by setting up readers at choke points to monitor
asset movement.

​Battery-Assisted Passive (BAP) Systems

A Battery-Assisted Passive RFID tag is a type of passive tag which incorporates a

crucial active tag feature. While most passive RFID tags use the energy from the
RFID reader’s signal to power on the tag’s chip and backscatter to the reader, BAP
tags use an integrated power source (usually a battery) to power on the chip, so all
of the captured energy from the reader can be used for backscatter. Unlike
transponders, BAP tags do not have their own transmitters.
 Battery-Assisted
Active RFID Passive RFID
Passive (BAP)

Tag uses internal

Energy power source to
Tag Power transfer from power on, and energy
Internal to tag
Source the reader via transferred from the
RF reader via RF to
backscatter

Tag Battery Yes No Yes

Availability of Tag Only within Only within field of

Continuous
Power field of reader reader

Moderate (does not

Required Signal Very high
need to power tag,
Strength from Very Low (must power
but must power
Reader to Tag the tag)
backscatter)

Available Signal
Strength from Tag High Very Low Moderate
to Reader

Communication Long Range Short range Moderate range (up

Range (100m or more) (up to 10m) to 100m)

Ability to read
Ability to Ability to read and
and transfer
continuously transfer sensor
sensor values
Sensor Capability monitor and values only when tag
only when tag
record sensor receives RF signal
is powered by
input from reader
reader
LCD Display

Liquid crystal displays (LCDs) have materials which combine the properties of
both liquids and crystals. Rather than having a melting point, they have a
temperature range within which the molecules are almost as mobile as they
would be in a liquid, but are grouped together in an ordered form similar to a
crystal.

An LCD consists of two glass panels, with the liquid crystal material sand
witched in between them. The inner surface of the glass plates are coated
with transparent electrodes which define the character, symbols or patterns to
be displayed polymeric layers are present in between the electrodes and the
liquid crystal, which makes the liquid crystal molecules to maintain a defined
orientation angle.

One each polarisers are pasted outside the two glass panels. These
polarisers would rotate the light rays passing through them to a definite angle,
in a particular direction

When the LCD is in the off state, light rays are rotated by the two polarisers
and the liquid crystal, such that the light rays come out of the LCD without any
orientation, and hence the LCD appears transparent.

When sufficient voltage is applied to the electrodes, the liquid crystal

molecules would be aligned in a specific direction. The light rays passing
through the LCD would be rotated by the polarisers, which would result in
activating / highlighting the desired characters.

The LCD’s are lightweight with only a few millimeters thickness. Since the
LCD’s consume less power, they are compatible with low power electronic
circuits, and can be powered for long durations.

The LCD’s don’t generate light and so light is needed to read the display. By
using backlighting, reading is possible in the dark. The LCD’s have long life
and a wide operating temperature range.
 Changing the display size or the layout size is relatively simple which makes
the LCD’s more customer friendly.

The LCDs used exclusively in watches, calculators and measuring

instruments are the simple seven-segment displays, having a limited amount
of numeric data. The recent advances in technology have resulted in better
legibility, more information displaying capability and a wider temperature
range. These have resulted in the LCDs being extensively used in
telecommunications and entertainment electronics. The LCDs have even
started replacing the cathode ray tubes (CRTs) used for the display of text and
graphics, and also in small TV applications.

Crystalonics dot –matrix (alphanumeric) liquid crystal displays are available in

TN, STN types, with or without backlight. The use of C-MOS LCD controller
and driver ICs result in low power consumption. These modules can be
interfaced with a 4-bit or 8-bit micro processor /Micro controller.

The built-in controller IC has the following features:

⮚ Correspond to high speed MPU interface (2MHz)

⮚ 80 x 8 bit display RAM (80 Characters max)

⮚ 9,920 bit character generator ROM for a total of 240 character fonts. 208
character fonts (5 x 8 dots) 32 character fonts (5 x 10 dots)

⮚ 64 x 8 bit character generator RAM 8 character generator RAM 8 character

fonts (5 x 8 dots) 4 characters fonts (5 x 10 dots)

⮚ Programmable duty cycles

1/8 – for one line of 5 x 8 dots with cursor

1/11 – for one line of 5 x 10 dots with cursor

1/16 – for one line of 5 x 8 dots with cursor

⮚ Wide range of instruction functions display clear, cursor home, display on/off,
cursor on/off, display character blink, cursor shift, display shift.

FUNCTIONAL DESCRIPTION OF THE CONTROLLER IC

REGISTERS:

The controller IC has two 8 bit registers, an instruction register (IR) and
a data register (DR). The IR stores the instruction codes and address
information for display data RAM (DD RAM) and character generator RAM
(CG RAM). The IR can be written, but not read by the MPU.

The DR temporally stores data to be written to /read from the DD RAM

or CG RAM. The data written to DR by the MPU, is automatically written to
the DD RAM or CG RAM as an internal operation.

When an address code is written to IR, the data is automatically

transferred from the DD RAM or CG RAM to the DR. data transfer between
the MPU is then completed when the MPU reads the DR. likewise, for the
next MPU read of the DR, data in DD RAM or CG RAM at the address is sent
to the DR automatically. Similarly, for the MPU write of the DR, the next DD
RAM or CG RAM address is selected for the write operation.

The dot-matrix liquid crystal display controller and driver LSI displays
alphanumeric, Japanese kana characters, and symbols. It can be configured
to drive a dot-matrix liquid crystal display under the control of a 4- or 8-bit
microprocessor. Since all the functions such as display RAM, character
generator, and liquid crystal driver, required for driving a dot-matrix liquid
crystal display are internally provided on one chip, a minimal system can be
interfaced with this controller/driver.

Block Diagram
 VDD-Vo: LCD DRIVING VOLTAGE

VR: 10K-20K

Absolute Maximum Ratings

Item Symbol Max Unit

Min

Power Voltage VDD 0 7.0 V

-VSS
Input Voltage Vin VSS VDD

Operating TOP 0 +50 T

Temperature
Range

Storage TST -20 +60

Temperature
Range
2.5 ARDUINO SOFTWARE:

1. Open Arduino IDE as shown below

Open Arduino IDE

2. Select the COM Port from tool

Select the COM

Port

Fig 3.3
3. Select the required Arduino board from Tools as
shown below
Select the required Arduino board fig 3.4
4. Write the sketch in Arduino IDE

Sketch in Arduino IDE

5. Compile and upload the Sketch to Arduino
board upload the Sketch to Arduino board

Conclusion:

In this system we can create a ticket using

RFID tags normally as metro and we have
count the how many tickets are taken by [1] K. Patil, "RFID Based Ticketing System
passengers and how many people entering in For Local Trains", International Journal of
Computer Science and Information
to the railway station. Technologies, vol. 06, no. 03, 2015.
[Accessed 11 April 2021].
Here we are using two Arduino nano
[2]K. Mayes, K. Markantonakis and G.
microcontroller one is for reading the RFID Hancke, "Transport ticketing security and
tags like tickets, these data share to the next fraud controls", Information Security
Technical Report, vol. 14, no. 2, pp.
verification section.
87-95, 2009. Available:
For example 3 tickets are taken by passengers 10.1016/[Link].2009.06.003 [Accessed 11
April 2021].
and 5 members are entry in to the railway
[3]C. Ananthakumar, "Metro Train Safety and
station and the IR sensor is counts how many Ticket Checking System", International
members the entering and how many Journal of Science and Engineering
Applications, vol. 8, no. 03, 2019.
members leave the station these and all
[Accessed 11 April 2021].
maintenance by the Arduino nano. When the
[4]S. Chhabile, "AUTOMATED FRAUD
Ticket collector is collect data of tickets and DETECTION IN EXAMINATION FROM
press the fool proof tickets alarm button. Then HALL TICKET", International Research
Journal of Modernization in Engineering
the microcontroller process and alerts.
Technology and Science, vol. 03, no. 03,
2021. [Accessed 11 April 2021].
Result:
[5]I. Abbas, "Comparative study of
technologies and intelligent train ticketing
system", Indian Journal of Science and
Technology, vol. 13, no. 15, pp.
1570-1579, 2020. Available:
10.17485/ijst/v13i15.13 [Accessed 11
April 2021].
[6]C. Furtado, "RFID Based Metro Train
Ticketing System", IJSTE - International
Journal of Science Technology &
Engineering, vol. 3, no. 9, 2021.
[Accessed 11 April 2021].
[7]P. DIVIJA, "RFID BASED
UNIVERSAL/MULTI TRANSPORT
TICKETING SYSTEM", Complexity
International Journal, vol. 25, no. 01,
2021. [Accessed 11 April 2021].
References: [8]G. D'silva, A. Scariah, L. Pannapara and J.
Joseph, "Smart ticketing system for
 railways in smart cities using software as
a service architecture", 2017 International
Conference on I-SMAC (IoT in Social,
Mobile, Analytics and Cloud) (I-SMAC),
2017. Available:
10.1109/i-smac.2017.8058295 [Accessed
11 April 2021].
[9]R. Vijaysanthi, N. Radha, M. Shree and V.
Sindhujaa, "Fingerprint authentication
using Raspberry Pi based on IoT", 2017
International Conference on Algorithms,
Methodology, Models and Applications in
Emerging Technologies (ICAMMAET),
2017. Available:
10.1109/icammaet.2017.8186737
[Accessed 11 April 2021].
[10]A. El-Wakeel, J. Li, A. Noureldin, H.
Hassanein and N. Zorba, "Towards a
Practical Crowdsensing System for Road
Surface Conditions Monitoring", IEEE
Internet of Things Journal, vol. 5, no. 6,
pp. 4672-4685, 2018. Available:
10.1109/jiot.2018.2807408 [Accessed 11
April 2021].
[11]K. Mahesh, "RFID Based Ticket
Generation for Passengers using
IoT", International Journal of Scientific
Engineering and Technology Research,
vol. 06, no. 01, 2017. [Accessed 11 April
2021].
[12]J. Ali, T. Ali, Y. Alsaawy, A. Khalid and S.
Musa, "Blockchain-based Smart-IoT Trust
Zone Measurement
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International Conference on Omni-Layer
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10.1145/3312614.3312646 [Accessed 11
April 2021].