Bharat Bahadser J CHAPTER - 8— Support and Lining 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Support methods end principles 8.3, Evaluation of support requirements a Geological factors which may influence the stability The strength and quality of the intact rock Introduction 2. The degree of jointing and the character of the discontinuities yin good quality rock the self- 3. Weakness zones and faults supporting capacity of the rock 1. Rock stresses mass should be used to its Water inflow advantage, and the amount of rock support kept at a minimum. In poor quality rock the design of support should be based on a sound understanding of the character and extent of the stability | problem.The stability of tunnels in weak rock is controlled by the ratio of the uniaxial compressive strength of the rock mass to the moximum in situ stress. This ratio provides a guide to the first estimate of support requirements to control strain to @ specified level. Numerical analysis of the response of the tunnel to sequential excavation and support installation is the most reliable means of optimizing the support design. This approach to support design is illustrated by means of a number of practical examples. Tunneling in weak rock presents some special challenges to the geotechnical engineer since misjudgments in the design of support systems con lead to under- design and costly failures or over-design and high tunneling costs. In order to understand the issues involved in the process of designing support for these tunnels, it is necessary to examine some basic concepts of how a rock mass surrounding a tunnel deforms and how the support system acts to control this deformation. Once these basic concepts have been explored, examples of practical support designs for different conditions will be considered.ESTIMATES OF SUPPORT CAPACITY Hoek and Brown (1980) and Brady and Brown (1985) have published equations that can be used to calculate the capacity of mechanically anchored rockbolts, shatcrete or concrete linings or steel sets for a circular tunnel. Typical support pressures for a variety of different systems for range of tunnel sizes are plotted in Figure 9. Once again it must be emphasized that these support pressures are derived from idealized calculations for a circular tunnel and that great care hos to be used in applying these values to actual problems. As illustrated in the practical examples presented later, these support estimates provide a useful starting point in @ tunnel support design evaluation, but it is necessary to check the details of this design by numerical analysis. Pome 190 / Pro “1020 fe Pann = 100" /a Pin 1830" Pn RO Pre =Note that all of the support pressures in Figure 9 have been plotted for steel set or rock bott spocing’s of 1 m and thot, in order to determine the support pressures for other spocing's the equations given for each support type should be used. When support types are combined, the total avaiole support pressure can be estimated by summing the maximum ‘liowable pressures for each system, However, In making this assumption it hos to be veokted thot these suppoct systems do not necessarily fect at the some time ond thet it may be necessary to check the compatibilty of the systems in terms of deformation, For example if steel sets embedded in shoterete are installed immediately behind the tunnel face, the stee! sets will accept load immedately while the shotcrete will accept on increasing omount of lod 0s it hardens (compare curves 24, 25 and 26 in Figure 9). Depending an the rote of fdvance of the tunnel, it may be necessary to SSTTT I check thot the copecity of the steel sets isnot tov Oran exceeded before the shoterete has hardened to estrone te extent thot it con cory its full shore of the ‘teat food. feattes| eePRACTICAL EXAMPLE OF SUPPORT DESIGN {In arder to demonstrate the application of the concepts presented earlier and the extension of these concepts. bby the use of numerical analysis, a practical tunnel design problem is considered. The problem involves a 10 m span modified horseshoe-shaped tunnel driven through very poor quality rock at an increasing depth 25 Ht penetrates @ mountain range. It Is assumed that the rock mass properties and the ratio of the in situ stresses remain constant, The horizontal stress is ‘assumed to be 1.3 times the vertical stress. The stability of the tunnel is examined at depths below surface of, 50, 250 and S00 m. The rock mass is a graphitic phy/lite With a uniaxial compressive strength, determined by laboratory tests, of oci = 15 MPa. The rock mass is described as ‘disintegrated’, consisting of a poorly interlocked mixture of angular and rounded pieces, and ‘poor’ with slickensided and highly weathered surfaces. From Tabled value, these descriptions give an approximate Geological Strength index GSI = 25. From Figure, the uniaxial compressive strength af the rock. ‘mass is estimated as == 1 MPa. Empirical analysis: The preliminary anatysis of tunnel deformation and required Support is carried out in the sequence presented in Table 1. This. involves estimating the in situ stresses and the ratio of rock mass strength to in situ stress for each of the tunnel depths. The strain for each tunnel is then estimated trom equation 2, Table |: Support estimation sequence Depth below surface - m 350 250 S00 ‘Vertical in situ stress p, ~ MPa. 1.25 625 125 Strength to stress ratio - Gm/Py «80.16 0.08 Strain without support -%@(eqn.2) 03 7.8 313 Pili for 2 % steain (Figure 8) 0 028 035 for 2 % strain = MPa 0 16 44 pilao for $ % steain (Figure 8) 0 01 O24 [Link] 5 % strain - MPa 0 06330For the SO m deep tunnel with no support, the strain és only 03 % and hence ma major support requirements ore anticipated. For the 250 m deep tunnel with ne support, the strain of 7.8% suggests hat significant stability problems will occur unless adequate support is provided. For the 500 m deep tunnel with no support, the strain of more than 30% will probably result in collapse of the tunnel, Special consideration of the support requirements will be required for this case. The support required to simit strain to 2% and 5% has been estimated for each of ‘the tunnels in Table 1. Inthe case of the 250 m deep tunnel. the support pressure of 1.6 MPa for 2 % strain isnot dificult ta achieve for a 10 m span tunnel with » combination of two support elements. For ‘example, three-bar lattice wirders, spaced at 1 m, embedded inva 150mm thick shoterete layer (curves 8 and 22 in Figure 9) wil give @ suppart pressure of approximately 1.8 MPa. Alternatively, & 1m x 1m pattern of 34 maim diameter rockbolts together with a 200 mm thick shoterete lining (curves 10 snd interpolating Between curves 21 and 22 in Figure 3) wil give the required support pressure of 1.6 MPa TYPES OF PRIMARY SUPPORT SYSTEMS in aid concept ot 1968 Rock Tunnels Three main types of primary support systems are presently used in rock tunnels in the United States. They are rock bolts, steel sets, and shotcrete. Shotcrete is a pneumatically applied large-eggregate concrete. The need for a secondary lining in a tunnel supported by shotcrete depends on the purpose of the tunnel. Table 1 gives present use of the three types of primary support systems for rock tunnels in various rack conditions. Each of the three support systems can be used under a wide range of tunneling conditions, with some limitations in the poorer quality rock. Recently, the Bernold System has been used with considerable success in poor quality rock in Europe (9). The system consists of the use of pumpcrete to fill the annulus between curved expanded metal sheets that are ploced close to the foce, Movable steel sets provide temporary support until the concrete cures.{me OF PBKANY HOFFONT SVETEMG FO ROCK TURE Soll Tunnels Table 2 summarizes the applicability of several types of support systems in various soil conditions. In contrast to tunnels in rock, only one or two support systems are likely to be both technically and economically feasible in any given soil condition. Soil tunnels often have "=" secondary liners, but shield-driven tunnels have traditionally been constructed without a secondary liner because the primary support system was of cast iron and corrosion-resistant. More modern shield tunnels, lined with concrete or coated steel segments, are also cortosion-resistant and require no secondary liner.MODERN CONCEPTS OF THE DESIGN OF TUNNEL SUPPORT SYSTEMS During excavation, most of the existing stresses in the ground are redistributed around the opening by mobilization of the strength of the soil or rock. The redistribution is often described as arching. Usually only enough support must be ‘added within o short time after excavation to help the soil or rock hold itself up. Current soll and rock mechanics practice is to recognize ond treat the behavior of any system as a complex function of the interaction of the behavior of the individual components of the system. In contrast, previous concepts and theories for the design of tunnel supports have been based solely on assumed loading diagrams; hence, they are unsatisfactory. Furthermore, because the soll or rock being tunneled does not meet the appropriate assumptions, elastic ond elastic-plastic theories are rarely satisfactory for predicting the loads in tunnel supports. The designer must somehow account for the deformation in both the soil or rock and the support. The best way to visualize this interaction phenomenon #s by the simplified ground reaction curve shown in Figure 1 troupe reccton SW Covi Support Reaction Loeé Wher Delormation of Wells Ceares ‘Figure 1. Simplified ground reaction curve. ‘aoc. tom tt SELECTION OF HmoEARY SIPRORT STEN FOR ROCK TURES TAMLE > ROCK QUALITY CLASSIFICATIONSupport methods and principles Rock tunnel support are divided into two categories: A). Tempo rally support: ‘This is a short-term measure only to provide a safe working envioronment for continuous excavation. Common techniques are bolts and shotcrete. 8) Permanent support: This is long-term support for a life-span of the tunnel. ‘The methods available are steel set, cast-in concrete, concrete segment, bolt, shotcrete (with or without ste! fibre reinforcement).Primary support Secondary lining with (€25 concrete‘Install the support ond reinforcement close to the face after ‘exeavotion., | There thould be good contoct between the rock mass ond the support ond reinforeement system. Repested removal and replacement of wpport and reinforcing elements shovld be avoided, ‘Micienam obstruction te the excavation ond the working face. The rock mass surrounding the excavation should be disturbed 93 litle 2s ponsible, Purpose : + lacal support and reinforcement te support individval blocks ‘or lactened zones on on excavation boundary; \general or systematic reinforcement in which the objective is 10 mobilise ond conserve the inherent strength of the rock mass; ‘ond support and reinforcement system designed to resist the: dynamic loading cssocioted with rock burst conditions. Roof bolts may be wed 10 wipend 0 potentially unstable root ‘beam in @ laminated reck,f itis assumed that the weight of tho ‘rack in the wnstoble zone fs wypported entirely by the force developed in the rock bolts then os s= /yoIn Norway as well as in most other countries the Scaling rock support methods are todoy most commonly used in hydropower tunneling: Scaling is the process of removing loose or potentially © Scali unstable material (or a small section of slope) that caling might dislodge or affect the trajectory of falling rock by 7 creating @ launching point for materials falling from . Rock bolting above. it is accomplished by hand or mechanical : scaling, or by small blasting operations called trim * Shotcreting basting. sealing Us effective on natural and newly tet, excavated slopes, and is done as periodic maintenance * Concrete lining — fertmy siopes thet pose @ potent! rockjal hasan to _, roadways. * Grouting Scaling is used to reshape slopes and to stabilize existing slopes and mitigate rockfall. For new construction, scaling should be completed immediately after the initial slope construction and periodically thereafter to remove any loosened rocks. Hand scaling on existing slopes may be required on a more regular basis, depending on the construction and condition of the rock face.Sealing of loase rock is carried out after each blast round, and in many cases also periodically ot later stages. (with o crowbar) is still the most common method. mokes the work safer ond mone efficient especially at bigger cross sections. Thorough sealing is important for the safety, even when comprehensive permanent support is to be carried out at a later stage. The scaling-operatian has the general disadvantage that it is relatively time- consuming. Manual scaling is probably the most risky of all tunneling operations.Rock bolting: Rock bolting in tunnels and caverns is carried out ‘according to one of the following two main principles: 1. Spat bolting of individual, unstable blocks 2. Systematic bolting of @ section of the tunnel or the cavern in a defined pattern For immediate support at the working face tensioned rock bolts are normally used. These bolts may be mechanically or resin anchored, and are widely used as protection against falling blacks and rock bursts. The principle for installing an expansion bolt is shown on the left in Fig. 10.1. This is a very common bolt for immediate support. In a corrosive environment pipe balls, which have a central hole for later grouting, are often used. Rock bolt, in (wineling and underground mining, steel rod inserted in a hole drilled into the roof ot walls of a rock formation to provide support to the roof or sides of the cavity. Rock bolt reinforcement can be used in any excavation geometry, is simple and quick to apply, and is relatively inexpensive. The installation can be fully mechanized. The length of the bolts and their spacing can be varied, depending on the reinforcement requirements. ren } Remy fra eect wore raeThere are three major ways of anchoring the rock bolts: 1. Mechanical 2. Grouted ob _Srietion, Mechanical The most common form of mechanically anchored rock bolt uses an expansion shell. A wedge attached to the bolt shank is pulled into a conical expansion shell as the bolt is rotated. This forces the shell to expand against the wall of the borehole. The two mechanisms by which the shell is anchored against the borehole wall are Jriction and interlock. A preload can be ‘applied to the rock surface by tensioning the bolt with an attached hanger or face plate, which are designed to distribute the load uniformly onto the surrounding rock. The most common grout-anchored rock bolt is the fully grouted rebar, a threaded bar made of steel. Cement or resin is used as the grouting agent. A cable bolt is a reinforcing element made of steel wires in the form of a strand or rope; it is installed in the borehole with cement grout. Jriction. Frietion-anchored rock bolts represent the most recent development in rock reinforcement techniques. Frictional resistance to sliding is generated by a radial force against the borehole wall over the whole length of the bolt.Support nut ae Plob —/ Used only with prong anchorage units-not x with bail anchorage units Expansion shell Square head wit forged washer (one ¥) JAY Bolt body Roof bolt wee Round washer’Shotcreting Shotcrete is a wet- or dry-mix mortar with a fine aggregate (up to 23 mm, or 7/8 in) that is sprayed directly onto a slope using compressed air, Several applications may be needed to build the shotcrete up to the required thickness. Unreinforced gives little structural support protection against weathering, but can be used to prevent differential erosion between units, slope raveling, and loosening of blocks shotcrete or Shotcrete can also be applied around the exposed ends of rock bolts to help prevent weathering around the bearing plates and limit slope degradation. To increase tensile strength and structural support, the contractor can include fibers in the shotcrete mix or apply the shotcrete to welded wire mesh shown by Figure.Shotcreting starts at the lowest level moves upwards The nozzle is kept perpendicular to the rock surface, normally at a distance of 1.5-2.5 m Layer thickness in one pass is limited aecording to the use or an accelerator and the slump to avoid sloughing off (normally 3-5 cm) Conese airConcrete lining Concrete lining for stabilization is used only in sections with exceptionally poor rock. The lining is most often ¢ at the tunnel face by the use of a steel_formwork. The Length of the formwork is normally between J wd 6 m, and the conerete lining is designed with @ minimum thickness of 5 Mpa or higher are omen CANAL IRRIGATION Reinforcement is rarely used. inet eae Nee eaning in tunneling: > Steps in structural design construction n: Blasting / mechanical tools ind support: safety during work nd support: structural safety what is tunnel lining? * timber, brick, concrete, or steel supports erected in a tunnel to maintain dimensions and safe working conditions. + And finally for permanent safety of the system.Sere re ene nme sr int Omer tenn ground for the purpose of improving the Poon ¢ + Types of grouts Seer ~ Chemical grouts{fine sand and silts) Peart Sorc ie Ret cord Un eee nee ie See ee ea eee ced SRC a Ten eter nme eee ee Teer erect Rete) te age enerThe purpose of grouting in underground excavations — is mainly to reduce the groundwater inflow. Occasionally, grouting is also carried out to improve the rock mass_ stability. In major faults and weakness zones, _ for instance, pre-grouting — may improve the strength properties of the rock mass, and thus make tunneling easier. The decisions concerning grouting against water inflow are based primarily on what volume of water leakage can be tolerated. In water tunnels minor leakages do not represem long-term problems (in headrace tunnels rather an advantage), and grouting is normally carried owt only in cases where exireme water inflows make tunneling difficult In access tunnels and in the powerhouse caverns, in particular, considerably stricter criteria _must_be applied. The part of an underground hydropower plant where grouting is most extensively carried ont, however, is normally around concrete plugsGril haleEvaluation of support requirements Main Principles: One of the following approaches ore used for evaluation of rock support requirement and support design: 1. Empirical methods 2. Classification systems 3. Analytical methods The empirical approach, which is most commonly used. Classification systems for evaluating the need for rock support and dimensioning it are described in detail in Chopter 6. Methods like the Q-system may in many situations repeesent a good alternative for evaluation of support requirement. It is, however, Important to be aware that such systems also have their limitations, For evaluation of rock support, as underlined in Chapter 6, classification systems should always be used critically, and preferably in combination with other methods. The categories of analytical methods most commoniy used for evaluating rock suppart are: Analytical methods: 4. Limit equilibrium analyses 2. Numerical anatyses In limit equilibrium analyses the main principle is to evaluate the load represented by the rock mass and the forces represented by rock support which are required to resist this load. The dimensioning of steel arch support in Terzaghi’s classification system represents an example of application of this principle. A more typical example, however, is shown in Fig. 10.11. In this example there is a potential wedge fail are situation in the tunnel contour due to intersecting discontinuities, and problem is to evaluate the necessary“The (actor of safety aguinst failure is represented by the ratio between stabi. izing and driving forces. For the exsimple im Fig, 10.11 this is: pa A+ OW cos + T tin) 159 Wein —TconB Where: W_ = weight of unstable Block Tw tote bolt capacity A. = sliding plane area @ = dipangle of sliding plane B= bole angle relative 10 ° 1g plane. = cohesion of stiding pl = friction angie of sliding plane. ‘The required total bolt capacity is normally calculated by applying a factor of safety F of between 1.5 and 20, depending on required safety level and {ype of rock bots. The calculation will be considerably simplified ifthe un- Me 1011 stable block is located in the roof of the tunnel, and the load on the rock Tensioned rock bolts for fi eedy cans support of unstable wedge :