Introduction to cell biology
Dr. Saleh Ben Sumaidea
Assistance professor of Histopathology,
Cytopathology, Molecularbiology & Genetics
chromatin
• The complexes between DNA and proteins, which contains
about twice as much protein as DNA.
• The major proteins of chromatin are the histones : —
• small proteins containing a high proportion of basic amino acids
(arginine and lysine) that facilitate binding to the negatively
charged DNA molecule.
Chromosomes
• A chromosome is composed of chromatin, which is two
strands of helical DNA and its associated proteins.
• During cell division ,the DNA becomes tightly wound
around the histones to form structures called nucleosome,
which are further coiled and packaged into the highly
condensed chromosomes
Scientists can tell different chromosomes apart based on
their size, the relative lengths of their arms, distinctive
staining patterns, and other characteristics.
Cell
Transcription DNA
mRNA
Translation Ribosome
Polypeptide
(protein)
DNA
• Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a nucleic
acid that contains the genetic instructions
used in the development and functioning
of all known living organisms and some
viruses.
• The main role of DNA molecules is the
long-term storage of information.
• DNA = deoxyribonucleic acid
• DNA is a polymer, the subunits are
nucleotides
• ...N1-N2-N 3-N4-N5....
• A nucleotide is composed of:
• PHOSPHATE-SUGAR-BASE
Structure of nucleotides
Nucleotides have three characteristic components:
A nitrogenous base
A phosphate group (pyrimidines or purine)
A pentose sugar
Structure of nucleosides
Remove the phosphate group, and you have a nucleoside.
H
The ribose sugar
Nucleotide Structure - 1
Sugars
HOCH2 OH
O
Generic Ribose
Structure Ribose
5’
HOCH2
O OH OH
4’ 1’
3’ 2’
HOCH2 OH
O
N.B. Carbons are given numberings as a
prime
Deoxyribose
OH H
The purine or pyrimidine base
Major bases in nucleic acids
• The bases are
abbreviated by their first
letters (A, G, C, T, U).
• The purines (A, G) occur
in both RNA and DNA
• Among the pyrimidines, C
occurs in both RNA and
DNA, but
• T occurs in DNA, and
• U occurs in RNA
The phosphate
Nucleic acids
Nucleotide monomers
can be linked together via a
phosphodiester linkage
formed between the 3' -OH
of a nucleotide
and the phosphate of the
next nucleotide.
Two ends of the resulting poly-
or oligonucleotide are defined:
The 5' end lacks a nucleotide at
the 5' position,
and the 3' end lacks a nucleotide
at the 3' end position.
27 Fig. 8-7
Double Helix of DNA
DNA strands
• The antiparallel strands of DNA are not
identical, but are complementary.
• This means that they are positioned to
align complementary base pairs: C with G,
and A with T.
• So you can predict the sequence of
one strand given the sequence of
its complement.
Antiparallel Chains
5’p OH3’
3’OH p5’
Two strands of the DNA double helix are
antiparallel and complementary to each
other
Base pairing
The realization that the planar
bases can associate in
particular ways by means of
hydrogen bonding was a crucial
step in the elucidation of the
structure of DNA.
BASE-PAIRINGS
H-bonds When guanine and
cytosine bond,
they form triple
G C hydrogen bonds
When thymine and
adenine bond, a T A
double hydrogen
bond is formed
(Ribonucleic acid (RNA
Features of RNA
RNA: polymer composed
of a combination of four
nucleotides
– adenine (A)
– cytosine (C)
– guanine (G)
– uracil (U)
Functional differences between
RNA and DNA
• – DNA single function, RNA many
functions
• • Example of types of RNA: tRNA, mRNA,
rRNA
Messenger RNA (mRNA) :
• mRNA is transcribed from a gene and then
translated by ribosomes in order to
manufacture a protein.
• Each set of three bases, called colons,
specifies a certain protein in the sequence
of amino acids that comprise the protein.
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
• is a component of the ribosomes, the protein
synthetic factories in the cell.
• rRNA molecules are extremely abundant. They
make up at least 80% of the RNA molecules
found in a typical eukaryotic cell.
Transfer RNA:
• There are 4 arms and 3 loops.
• Sometimes tRNA molecules have an extra or
variable loop
• A tRNA has two functional
sites:
• an activating enzyme adds a
specific amino acid.
• The other functional site carries
the anticodon specific for that
amino acid.
• Each type of tRNA transfers
one particular amino acid to a
growing polypeptide chain
• Small RNA –
• may have catalytic activity and/or
associate with proteins to enhance
activity, some involved with RNA
processing in the nucleus