Prof.

Vasu V Eregowda BMATS201 (Module 4)

Regula-Falsi Method

Introduction

The Regula Falsi Method (False Position Method) is a numerical method used to
find the root of a function. It is a bracketing method that improves upon the bisection
method by using a secant line instead of the midpoint.

Formula

The formula for the next approximation xn of the root is:

af (b) − bf (a)
xn = (0.1)
f (b) − f (a)

where:

• a and b are two initial guesses (bracket) such that f (a) and f (b) have opposite
signs ( f (a) · f (b) < 0 ).

• f (a) and f (b) are function values at a and b , respectively.

• xn is the new approximation of the root.

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 Prof. Vasu V Eregowda BMATS201 (Module 4)

Working Procedure

1. Choose initial guesses a and b such that f (a) · f (b) < 0 .

2. Compute the next approximation xn using Equation (1).

3. Check if f (xn ) is close enough to zero (within a given tolerance ǫ ).

• If yes, stop.

• If no, update the interval:

(1)If f (a) · f (xn ) < 0 , set b = xn . (2)Otherwise, set a = xn .

4. Repeat steps until the desired accuracy is achieved.

Example Calculation

Find the root of f (x) = x3 − x − 2 using Regula Falsi with a = 1 and b = 2 .

Step 1: Check Function Values

f (1) = 13 − 1 − 2 = −2

f (2) = 23 − 2 − 2 = 4

Since f (1) and f (2) have opposite signs, we proceed.

Step 2: Compute xn

1(4) − 2(−2)
xn =
4 − (−2)

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Prof. Vasu V Eregowda BMATS201 (Module 4)

4+4 8
= = = 1.33
6 6

Step 3: Check f (xn)

f (1.33) = (1.33)3 − 1.33 − 2 = −0.37

Since f (1) and f (1.33) have the same sign, update a = 1.33 , keep b = 2 , and repeat
the process until convergence.

Problems

1. Find the real root of the equation cos x = 3x − 1 correct to three decimals by using
the Regula-Falsi method.

2. Find an approximate root of the equation x3 − 3x + 4 = 0 using the method of false

position, correct to three decimal places, which lies between −3 and −2 . (Carry
out three iterations)

3. Use the Regula-Falsi method to obtain a root of the equation 2x−log10 x = 7 which
lies between 3.5 and 4 .

4. Find the smallest positive root of the equation x2 − loge x = 12 by the Regula-Falsi
method.

5. Find the root of the equation xex − cos x = 0 by the method of false position.

6. Find an approximate value of the root of the equation xex = 3 using the Regula-
Falsi method, and carry out three iterations.

7. Find the real root of the equation x log10 x − 1.2 = 0 which lies between 2 and 3
by the Regula-Falsi method. (June/July 2023)

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 Prof. Vasu V Eregowda BMATS201 (Module 4)

8. Find the root of the equation xex = 2 that lies between 0 and 1 using the Regula-
Falsi method. Carry out four iterations. Correct to three decimal places. (Nov/Dec
2023)

9. Find an approximate value of the root of the equation x3 − x2 − 1 = 0 using

the Regula-Falsi method up to four decimal places of accuracy, where the root lies
between 1.4 and 1.5 . (Dec 2023/Jan 2024)

Engineering Applications

The Regula Falsi method is widely used in engineering for solving nonlinear equations.
Some of its key applications include:

Electrical Engineering

1. Used to analyze nonlinear circuits, such as diode and transistor circuits, by finding
the operating point.

2. Solves equations related to power flow in electrical networks.

Mechanical Engineering

1. Applied in stress analysis to find equilibrium points in structures.

2. Used in solving fluid mechanics problems, such as pipe flow calculations.

Civil Engineering

1. Determines load distribution in structural engineering problems.

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Prof. Vasu V Eregowda BMATS201 (Module 4)

2. Solves equations related to soil mechanics and foundation analysis.

Chemical Engineering

1. Used in reaction kinetics to determine equilibrium concentrations.

2. Applied in heat transfer and mass transfer calculations.

Aerospace Engineering

1. Helps in trajectory analysis and stability calculations.

2. Used in aerodynamics to solve equations related to lift and drag forces.

Conclusion

The Regula Falsi method is efficient for root-finding problems and ensures convergence
if the function is continuous within the given interval. Its applications span multiple
engineering fields, making it a valuable numerical technique.

Newton-Raphson Method

Introduction

The Newton-Raphson method is an iterative numerical technique used to find

the root of a function. It is widely used in engineering applications due to its rapid
convergence.

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 Prof. Vasu V Eregowda BMATS201 (Module 4)

Formula

The iterative formula for the Newton-Raphson method is given by:

f (xn )
xn+1 = xn − (0.2)
f ′ (xn )

where:

• xn is the current approximation.

• f (x) is the function.

• f ′ (x) is the derivative of f (x) .

• xn+1 is the next approximation.

Working Procedure

1. Choose an initial guess x0 .

2. Compute the next approximation using Equation (1).

3. Check if the difference |xn+1 − xn | is less than the desired tolerance ǫ . If yes, stop.

4. Otherwise, set xn = xn+1 and repeat the process.

Solve the following system of linear equations by

Newton-Raphson Method

1. Solve 3x = cos x + 1 by Newton-Raphson Method

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Prof. Vasu V Eregowda BMATS201 (Module 4)

Given that,
3x = cos x + 1

Step 1: Convert to Standard Form Rearrange the equation as:

f (x) = 3x − cos x − 1 = 0

Step 2: Compute the Derivative f ′ (x) Differentiate f (x) :

d
f ′ (x) = (3x − cos x − 1) = 3 + sin x
dx

Step 3: Newton-Raphson Formula The iterative formula for the Newton-Raphson method
is:
f (xn )
xn+1 = xn −
f ′ (xn )
Substituting f (x) and f ′ (x) :

3xn − cos xn − 1
xn+1 = xn −
3 + sin xn

Step 4: Initial Guess Choosing x0 = 0.3 as the initial approximation. Step 5: Iterations
Iteration 1
3(0.3) − cos(0.3) − 1
x1 = 0.3 −
3 + sin(0.3)
Computing values:

f (0.3) = 3(0.3) − cos(0.3) − 1 = 0.9 − 0.9553 − 1 = −1.0553

f ′ (0.3) = 3 + sin(0.3) = 3 + 0.2955 = 3.2955

−1.0553
x1 = 0.3 − = 0.3 + 0.3202 = 0.6202
3.2955
Iteration 2
3(0.6202) − cos(0.6202) − 1
x2 = 0.6202 −
3 + sin(0.6202)
Computing values:
f (0.6202) = 1.8606 − 0.8133 − 1 = 0.0473

f ′ (0.6202) = 3 + 0.5819 = 3.5819

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 Prof. Vasu V Eregowda BMATS201 (Module 4)

0.0473
x2 = 0.6202 − = 0.6202 − 0.0132 = 0.6070
3.5819
Iteration 3
3(0.6070) − cos(0.6070) − 1
x3 = 0.6070 −
3 + sin(0.6070)
Computing values:
f (0.6070) = 1.8210 − 0.8200 − 1 = 0.0010

f ′ (0.6070) = 3 + 0.5712 = 3.5712

0.0010
x3 = 0.6070 − = 0.6070 − 0.00028 = 0.60699
3.5712
Since |x3 − x2 | < 10−6 , we stop here.
real root of the equation is : x ≈ 0.6071

Problems

1. Find the real root of the equation 3x = cos x + 1 correct to three decimals by using
Newtons Raphson method. (Nov/Dec 2023)

2. Find the real root of the equation cos x = xex , which is nearer to x = 0.5 by the
Newton-Raphson method, correct to three decimal places.

3. Using the Newton-Raphson method, compute the real root of the equation near
x = π , correct to four decimal places. (June/July 2023)

4. Find the real root of the equation x log10 x − 1.2 = 0 correct to five decimal places
by Newton’s Raphson Method. (Dec 2023/Jan 2024)

5. Using the Newton-Raphson method, find the root that lies near x = 4.5 of the
equation tan x = x correct to four decimal places. (x is in radians)

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Prof. Vasu V Eregowda BMATS201 (Module 4)

Engineering Applications

The Newton-Raphson method is widely used in engineering disciplines due to its rapid
convergence and efficiency.

Electrical Engineering

1. Used in power system analysis to solve load flow equations.

2. Helps in determining the stability of electrical circuits and networks.

Mechanical Engineering

1. Applied in solving equations related to mechanical vibrations and dynamic systems.

2. Used for stress analysis and optimization of mechanical components.

Civil Engineering

1. Helps in structural analysis, such as determining deflection and moments in beams.

2. Applied in Geo technical engineering to analyze soil behavior.

Chemical Engineering

1. Used in reactor design to solve nonlinear rate equations.

2. Helps in solving mass and heat transfer equations in process engineering.

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 Prof. Vasu V Eregowda BMATS201 (Module 4)

Aerospace Engineering

1. Applied in orbital mechanics for trajectory corrections.

2. Used in aerodynamics to determine the behavior of airflow over surfaces.

Conclusion

The Regula Falsi and Newton-Raphson methods are both essential numerical
techniques for solving nonlinear equations. While Regula Falsi is a bracketing method
ensuring convergence, Newton-Raphson offers faster convergence but requires derivative
computation. Their applications span multiple engineering fields, making them valuable
tools in computational engineering.

Finite Differences

Forward Difference Table

The forward difference table is used in Newton’s Forward Interpolation.

x y ∆y ∆2 y ∆3 y
x0 y0
x1 y1 ∆y0 = y1 − y0
x2 y2 ∆y1 = y2 − y1 ∆2 y0 = ∆y1 − ∆y0
x3 y3 ∆y2 = y3 − y2 ∆2 y1 = ∆y2 − ∆y1 ∆ 3 y0 = ∆ 2 y1 − ∆ 2 y0

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Prof. Vasu V Eregowda BMATS201 (Module 4)

Newtons Forward Interpolation Formula

Newtons forward interpolation is used when the value of x at which the function is to
be interpolated is closer to the beginning of the data points. Formula
r(r − 1) 2 r(r − 1)(r − 2) 3
f (x) = y0 + r∆y0 + ∆ y0 + ∆ y0 + . . .
2! 3!
where:

• y0 is the first function value.

• ∆y0 , ∆2 y0 , ∆3 y0 , . . . are forward differences.

x−x0
• r= h
, where h is the difference between consecutive values of x .

Backward Difference Table

The backward difference table is used in Newton’s Backward Interpolation.

x y ∇y ∇2 y ∇3 y
x0 y0
x1 y1 ∇y1 = y1 − y0
x2 y2 ∇y2 = y2 − y1 ∇2 y2 = ∇y2 − ∇y1
x3 y3 ∇y3 = y3 − y2 ∇2 y3 = ∇y3 − ∇y2 ∇ 3 y3 = ∇ 2 y3 − ∇ 2 y2

Newtons Backward Interpolation Formula

Newtons backward interpolation is used when the value of x at which the function is
to be interpolated is closer to the end of the data points. Formula
r(r + 1) 2 r(r + 1)(r + 2) 3
f (x) = yn + r∇yn + ∇ yn + ∇ yn + . . .
2! 3!
where:

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 Prof. Vasu V Eregowda BMATS201 (Module 4)

• yn is the last function value.

• ∇yn , ∇2 yn , ∇3 yn , . . . are backward differences.

x−xn
• r= h
, where h is the difference between consecutive values of x .

Key Differences

Feature Newtons Forward Newtons Backward

Used when x is Near the beginning Near the end
Differences used Forward differences ∆ Backward differences ∇
Formula Structure Uses r, r(r − 1), r(r − 1)(r − 2) terms Uses r, r(r + 1), r(r + 1)(r + 2) terms

Problems

1. The area A of a circle of diameter D is given for the following values:

D 80 85 90 95 100
A 5026 5674 6362 7088 7854

Estimate A for D = 105 using Newtons Forward Interpolation Formula.

Step 1: Forward Difference Table

D A ∆A ∆2 A ∆3 A ∆4 A
80 5026 648 40 −2 4
85 5674 688 38 −2
90 6362 726 40
95 7088 766
100 7854

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Prof. Vasu V Eregowda BMATS201 (Module 4)

Step 2: Newton’s Forward Interpolation Formula

Newton’s forward interpolation formula is given by:

r(r + 1) 2 r(r + 1)(r + 2) 3 r(r + 1)(r + 2)(r + 3) 4

A(x) = A0 +r∆A0 + ∆ A0 + ∆ A0 + ∆ A0
2! 3! 4!

where:

• xn = 100 (starting value)

• h=5
x−xn 105−100
• x = 105 , so r = h
= 5
=1

Step 3: Substituting Values

From the difference table:

• An = 7854

• ∆An = 766

• ∆2 An = 40

• ∆3 An = 2

• ∆4 An = 4

Using Newtons formula:

(1)(2) (1)(2)(−3) (1)(2)(3)(4)

A(105) = 7854 + (1)(766) + (40) + (2) + (4)
2! 3! 4!

= 7854 + 766 + 40 + 2 + 4

= 8666

Thus, the area corresponding to diameter (D)

= 8666

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 Prof. Vasu V Eregowda BMATS201 (Module 4)

2. The area of a circle A correspoding to diameter D is given below.

D 80 85 90 95 100
A 5026 5674 6362 7088 7854
Calculate the area of a circle of diameter 82 by using Newton’s forward interpolation
formula.

3. The given values of sin x are:

x 45◦ 50◦ 55◦ 60◦

sin x 0.7071 0.7660 0.8192 0.8660
Estimate sin 48◦ using appropriate interpolation formula.

4.
x 45◦ 50◦ 55◦ 60◦
sin x 0.7071 0.7660 0.8192 0.8660
find sin 57◦ using appropriate interpolation formula

5. The given values of tan x are:

x 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30

tan x 0.1003 0.1511 0.2077 0.2553 0.3093
Estimate tan(0.26) using Newtons Backward Interpolation Formula.

6. The population of a town at different years is given below:

Year 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020

Population 20000 25000 31000 40000 51000
Estimate the population in the year 2007 using Newton’s Forward Interpolation
Formula.

7. From the following table, estimate the number of students who have obtained i) less
than 45 marks ii) marks between 40 and 45:

Marks 30-40 40-50 50-60 60-70 70-80

Number of Students 31 42 51 35 31

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Prof. Vasu V Eregowda BMATS201 (Module 4)

8. Estimate the probable number of people in the age group 20 to 25 years from the
following data

Marks U nder10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50

Number of Students 20 45 115 210 115

Newtons Divided Difference Formula

Introduction

Newtons Divided Difference Formula is a method used for **interpolating functions**

using unequally spaced data points. It provides an alternative to Newtons Forward and
Backward Interpolation Formulas, which are suitable only for equally spaced data.

Divided Difference Table

For given data points (x0 , y0 ), (x1 , y1 ), . . . , (xn , yn ) , we construct a **divided difference
table** as follows:
x f (x) f [x0 , x1 ] f [x0 , x1 , x2 ] ...
x0 y0
x1 y1 f [x0 , x1 ]
x2 y2 f [x1 , x2 ] f [x0 , x1 , x2 ]
x3 y3 f [x2 , x3 ] f [x1 , x2 , x3 ] f [x0 , x1 , x2 , x3 ]
.. .. .. .. ..
. . . . .
where the **divided differences** are recursively defined as:
f (x1 ) − f (x0 )
f [x0 , x1 ] =
x1 − x0
f (x2 , x3 ) − f (x1 , x2 )
f (x1 , x2 , x3 ) =
x3 − x1
and so on.

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 Prof. Vasu V Eregowda BMATS201 (Module 4)

Newtons Divided Difference Interpolation Formula

The **Newtons Divided Difference Polynomial** is given by:

Pn (x) = f (x0 ) + f [x0 , x1 ](x − x0 ) + f [x0 , x1 , x2 ](x − x0 )(x − x1 ) + . . .

+f [x0 , x1 , x2 , ..., xn ](x − x0 )(x − x1 )...(x − xn−1 )

Problems

1. Using Newton’s divided difference formula, evaluate f(8) from the following table

x 4 5 7 10 11 13
f (x) 48 100 294 900 1210 2028

2. Using Newton’s divided difference formula, find the values of y at x=8 and x=22
from the following table

x 0 5 10 15 20 25
f (x) 7 11 14 18 24 32

3. Using Newtons Divided Difference Formula, find the values of y at x = 8 and

x = 22 from the following table:

x 0 5 10 15 20 25
f (x) 7 11 14 18 24 32

4. Using Newtons Divided Difference Formula, evaluate f (4) from the following data:

x 0 2 3 6
f (x) −4 2 14 158

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Prof. Vasu V Eregowda BMATS201 (Module 4)

5. Using Newtons Divided Difference Formula, find f (9) from the following data:

Marks 5 7 11 13 17
Number of Students 150 329 1452 2366 5202
Fit an interpolating polynomial using Newton’s general interpolation formula for
the data
u10 = 355 , u0 = −5 , u8 = −21 , u4 = −125 , and hence find u2 .

6. Find the cubic polynomial which passes throgh the points: (2,4) (4,5) (9,711)
(10,980) and hence estimate the dependent variable corresponding to the values
of the independent variable 3,5,7,11.

Engineering Applications of Newtons Interpolation

Methods

Newtons Forward, Backward, and Divided Difference interpolation methods are widely
used in various engineering disciplines, including numerical analysis, signal processing,
thermodynamics, and structural analysis.

Newtons Forward Difference Formula

Newtons forward difference formula is used when data points are equally spaced and
interpolation is required near the beginning of the table.

Applications:

• Temperature and Pressure Predictions: Used in thermodynamics to estimate

temperatures, pressures, and other physical quantities from discrete experimental
data.

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 Prof. Vasu V Eregowda BMATS201 (Module 4)

• Digital Signal Processing (DSP): Interpolating discrete signals for audio and
image processing.

• Control Systems: Predicting control responses based on discrete sensor data.

Newtons Backward Difference Formula

Newtons backward difference formula is applied when data points are equally spaced
and interpolation is required near the end of the table.

Applications:

• Finite Element Analysis (FEA): Used in structural simulations to interpolate

material properties.

• Aerodynamics and Fluid Mechanics: Estimating pressure or velocity

distributions from computational fluid dynamics (CFD) data.

• Electrical Engineering: Numerical differentiation for circuit analysis and

transient response estimation.

Newtons Divided Difference Formula

Newtons divided difference formula is useful when data points are not equally spaced.

Applications:

• Machine Learning and Data Science: Used in polynomial regression and curve
fitting with scattered data.

• Astronomy and Orbital Mechanics: Estimating planetary positions from non-

uniformly spaced observations.

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Prof. Vasu V Eregowda BMATS201 (Module 4)

• Biomedical Engineering: Signal processing for irregularly sampled medical

signals (e.g., ECG, EEG).

Conclusion

Newtons interpolation methods provide powerful tools for estimating unknown values
from discrete datasets, making them essential in numerical computation and engineering
applications.

• Newtons Forward and Backward formulas are best suited for equally spaced
data and help in quick interpolations in structured datasets.

• Newtons Divided Difference method is more flexible and can handle

unequally spaced data, making it widely applicable in real-world scenarios.

• These methods significantly reduce computational efforts and improve the accuracy
of approximations in engineering analysis and simulations.

Lagrange Interpolation Formula

Given (x0 , y0 ), (x1 , y1 ), . . . , (xn , yn ) , the Lagrange interpolating polynomial is:

Pn (x) = L0 (x)y0 + L1 (x)y1 + · · · + Ln (x)yn

where each Lagrange basis polynomial is:

Y x − xj
Li (x) = ,
j6=i
xi − xj

i = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n and j = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n

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 Prof. Vasu V Eregowda BMATS201 (Module 4)

Steps to Solve Using Lagranges Formula

1. Write down the given data points (xi , yi ) .

2. Construct the Lagrange basis polynomials Li (x) .

3. Multiply each Li (x) by its corresponding yi .

4. Add all the terms to obtain the polynomial.

5. Simplify the expression.

6. Use the polynomial to find unknown values, if required.

Problems

1. Find y at x = 5 using Lagranges interpolation formula for the given data:

x 1 3 4 6
y −3 9 30 132

Solution

Lagrange Interpolation Formula

The Lagrange interpolating polynomial is:

P3 (x) = L0 (x)y0 + L1 (x)y1 + L2 (x)y2 + L3 (x)y3

where the Lagrange basis polynomials are:

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Prof. Vasu V Eregowda BMATS201 (Module 4)

Y x − xj
Li (x) =
j6=i
xi − xj

Compute Basis Polynomials

Basis Polynomial Expression

(x−3)(x−4)(x−6)
L0 (x) (1−3)(1−4)(1−6)
(x−1)(x−4)(x−6)
L1 (x) (3−1)(3−4)(3−6)
(x−1)(x−3)(x−6)
L2 (x) (4−1)(4−3)(4−6)
(x−1)(x−3)(x−4)
L3 (x) (6−1)(6−3)(6−4)

Substituting Given Values

P3 (x) = (−3)L0 (x) + 9L1 (x) + 30L2 (x) + 132L3 (x)

Calculate y(5)

Term Expression Value at x = 5

(5−3)(5−4)(5−6)
L0 (5) (1−3)(1−4)(1−6)
− 52
(5−1)(5−4)(5−6) 2
L1 (5) (3−1)(3−4)(3−6) 3
(5−1)(5−3)(5−6)
L2 (5) (4−1)(4−3)(4−6)
− 34
(5−1)(5−3)(5−4) 8
L3 (5) (6−1)(6−3)(6−4) 15

Now, calculating P3 (5) :

       
2 2 4 8
P3 (5) = (−3) × − +9× + 30 × − + 132 ×
5 3 3 15

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 Prof. Vasu V Eregowda BMATS201 (Module 4)

6
P3 (5) = + 6 − 40 + 70 = 70
5

2. Find Lagranges interpolation polynomial that takes on these values.

x 1 3 4 6
y −3 9 30 132

Solution

Lagrange Interpolation Formula

The Lagrange interpolating polynomial is:

P3 (x) = L0 (x)y0 + L1 (x)y1 + L2 (x)y2 + L3 (x)y3

where the Lagrange basis polynomials are:

Y x − xj
Li (x) =
j6=i
xi − xj

Compute Basis Polynomials

(x − 3)(x − 4)(x − 6)
L0 (x) =
(1 − 3)(1 − 4)(1 − 6)

(x − 3)(x − 4)(x − 6)
=
−30

(x − 1)(x − 4)(x − 6)
L1 (x) =
(3 − 1)(3 − 4)(3 − 6)

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Prof. Vasu V Eregowda BMATS201 (Module 4)

(x − 1)(x − 4)(x − 6)
=
6

(x − 1)(x − 3)(x − 6)
L2 (x) =
(4 − 1)(4 − 3)(4 − 6)

(x − 1)(x − 3)(x − 6)
=
−6

(x − 1)(x − 3)(x − 4)
L3 (x) =
(6 − 1)(6 − 3)(6 − 4)

(x − 1)(x − 3)(x − 4)
=
30

Constructing the Polynomial

P3 (x) = (−3)L0 (x) + 9L1 (x) + 30L2 (x) + 132L3 (x)

Substituting the values:

(x − 3)(x − 4)(x − 6) (x − 1)(x − 4)(x − 6)

P3 (x) = (−3) · +9·
−30 6

(x − 1)(x − 3)(x − 6) (x − 1)(x − 3)(x − 4)

+30 · + 132 ·
−6 30

Finding y(5)

Substituting x = 5 :

y(5) = (−3)L0 (5) + 9L1 (5) + 30L2 (5) + 132L3 (5)

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 Prof. Vasu V Eregowda BMATS201 (Module 4)

       
2 2 4 8
= (−3) × − +9× + 30 × − + 132 ×
5 3 3 15

6
= + 6 − 40 + 70 = 70
5
3. Use Lagrange’s interpolation formula to find f(4), given that

x 0 2 3 6
f (x) −4 2 14 158

4. Use Lagrange’s interpolation formula to find y at x = 10 , given that

x 5 6 9 11
f (x) 12 13 14 16

5. Use Lagrange’s interpolation formula to fit a polynomial for the data to find y at
x=2

x 0 1 3 4
f (x) −12 0 6 12

Numerical Integration: Trapezoidal Rule, Simpson’s

1/3 Rule, and Simpson’s 3/8 Rule

Trapezoidal Rule

The Trapezoidal Rule is a numerical method to approximate the definite integral of a

function.

" n−1
#
Z b
h X
f (x) dx ≈ f (x0 ) + 2 f (xi ) + f (xn )
a 2 i=1

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Prof. Vasu V Eregowda BMATS201 (Module 4)

Formula for n=4 and n=6

1. Z b
h
f (x) dx ≈ [f (x0 ) + 2f (x1 ) + 2f (x2 ) + 2f (x3 ) + f (x4 )]
a 2
2.
Z b
h
f (x) dx ≈ [f (x0 ) + 2f (x1 ) + 2f (x2 ) + 2f (x3 ) + 2f (x4 ) + 2f (x5 ) + f (x6 )]
a 2

where:

b−a
1. h = n
is the step size.

2. x0 , x1 , x2 , . . . , xn are the equally spaced points.

3. f (xi ) are the function values at these points.

Simpson’s 1/3 Rule

Simpsons 1/3 rule provides a more accurate approximation by using parabolic segments.

" n−1 n−2

#
Z b
h X X
f (x) dx ≈ f (x0 ) + 4 f (xi ) + 2 f (xi ) + f (xn )
a 3 i=1, odd i=2, even

Formula for n=4 and n=6

1. Z b
h
f (x) dx ≈ [f (x0 ) + 4f (x1 ) + 2f (x2 ) + 4f (x3 ) + f (x4 )]
a 3
2.
Z b
h
f (x) dx ≈ [f (x0 ) + 4f (x1 ) + 2f (x2 ) + 4f (x3 ) + 2f (x4 ) + 4f (x5 ) + f (x6 )]
a 3

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 Prof. Vasu V Eregowda BMATS201 (Module 4)

where:

1. n must be even.

b−a
2. h = n
.

3. The coefficients follow a pattern: for n = 4

1,4,2,4,2,1

4. The coefficients follow a pattern: for n = 6

1,4,2,4,2,4,1

Simpson’s 3/8 Rule

Simpson’s 3/8 Rule is another numerical method that improves accuracy by fitting
cubic polynomials.

" n−3
#
b
3h
Z X X
f (x) dx ≈ f (x0 ) + 3 f (xi ) + 2 f (xi ) + f (xn )
a 8 i=1, multiples of 36=n i=3,6,9,...

where:

1. n must be a multiple of 3

b−a
2. h = n

3. The coefficients follow a pattern: for n = 3

1,3,3,1

4. The coefficients follow a pattern: for n = 6

1,3,3,2,3,3,1

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Prof. Vasu V Eregowda BMATS201 (Module 4)

Problems
R1 1
1. Evaluate 0 1+x2
dx using the Trapezoidal Rule by taking 6 divisions (7 ordinates).
R3 1
2. Evaluate 0 4x+5
dx using the Trapezoidal Rule by taking 7 ordinates.
Rπ√
3. Evaluate 0
2
cos x dx using Simpsons 1/3rd Rule by taking 4 equal parts.
R1 1
4. Evaluate 0 1+x2
dx using Simpsons 1/3rd Rule by taking 4 equal parts, hence
deduce an approximate value of π .
R 0.6 2
5. Use Simpsons 1/3rd Rule to find 0
e−x dx by taking 7 ordinates.
R1 1
6. Evaluate 0 1+x2
dx using the Trapezoidal Rule by taking 6 divisions (7 ordinates).
R 5.2
7. Evaluate 4
log x dx taking 6 equal parts using Simpsons 3/8th Rule.
R3 1
8. Evaluate 0 1+x
dx using Simpsons 3/8th Rule by taking 7 ordinates.
R 1.4
9. Compute the value of 0.2
(sin x − log x + ex ) dx using Simpsons 3/8th Rule taking
six parts.
R1 1
10. Evaluate 0 1+x
dx using Simpsons 3/8th Rule by taking 7 ordinates, hence deduce
the value of loge 2 .
R3 1
11. Evaluate 0 (1+x)2
dx using Simpsons 3/8th Rule by taking n=3.

0.1 Practical applications of Numerical Integration

Numerical integration is widely used in various fields where analytical integration is

difficult or impossible. Some key practical applications include:

• Engineering Analysis: Used to compute area, volume, center of mass, and

moment of inertia when functions are complex or defined by data points.

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 Prof. Vasu V Eregowda BMATS201 (Module 4)

• Physics and Astronomy: Applied to calculate work, force, electric/magnetic

fields, and to model planetary motion and quantum systems.

• Computer Graphics and Animation: Utilized for light transport simulation

(e.g., ray tracing), shading, and motion dynamics in 3D graphics.

• Economics and Finance: Employed to evaluate utility functions, consumer

surplus, and to price financial derivatives using numerical models.

• Medicine and Biology: Used in pharmacokinetics, dose-response analysis, and

population modeling when experimental data needs integration.

• Environmental Science: Helps in modeling pollutant dispersion, estimating water

flow, and integrating climate or atmospheric data over time and space.

• Robotics and Control Systems: Used to solve motion equations, optimize

control strategies, and perform real-time trajectory calculations.

• Data Science and Machine Learning: Applied in Bayesian inference and

probabilistic modeling where integrals cannot be solved analytically.

• Signal and Image Processing: Used to compute the energy of signals, perform
filtering, and process image convolution operations.

• Aerospace and Automotive Design: Assists in simulation of vehicle and flight

dynamics, fuel usage prediction, and performance optimization.

Conclusion

These numerical integration methods are useful when an exact integral is difficult or
impossible to evaluate analytically. The accuracy increases from Trapezoidal Rule to
Simpsons 1/3 Rule to Simpsons 3/8 Rule.

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