MODULE 3

MEASUREMENT OF FORCE, TORQUE, SPEED, AND VELOCITY

3.1 FORCE MEASUREMENT
Definitions for Force:
Force is a push or pull OR Force is the capacity to do work or cause physical change OR Force=
Mass times acceleration (F = ma) OR A force is that which changes or tends to change the state
of rest or motion of a body.
Common Unit of Force
SI System: Newton (N) 1 N = 0.225 lb;
One Newton (N) of force is defined as the amount of force needed to accelerate 1
kilogram (kg) of mass at a rate of 1 meter per second squared (m/s2).

3.1.1 Hydraulic Load Cell (Also known as Hydraulic Plunger or Hydraulic force
meter)
Basic principle:-
When a force is applied on a liquid medium contained in a confined space, the pressure
of the liquid increases. This increase in pressure of the liquid is proportional to the applied force.
Hence a measure of the increase in
pressure of the liquid becomes a measure
of the applied force.

Construction:-
The figure shows the basic schematic
representation of the hydraulic load cell.
This cell uses the conventional piston and
cylinder arrangement. The piston does not
actually come in contact with the cylinder
wall in the normal sense. A thin elastic
diaphragm of steel with a loading platform
placed on top of the diaphragm. A liquid
medium which is under a pre-loaded
pressure is on the other side of the
diaphragm. A pressure gauge (bourdon tube type) connected to the liquid medium.
Operation:-
The force to be measured is applied to the piston. The applied force moves the piston downwards
and deflects the diaphragm and this deflection of the diaphragm increases the pressure in the
liquid medium (oil). This increase in pressure of the liquid medium is proportional to the applied
force. The increase in pressure is measured by the pressure gauge which is connected to the
liquid medium. The pressure is calibrated in force units and hence the indication in the pressure
gauge becomes a measure of the force applied on the piston.

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Advantages:-
1. Exhibit quick response to load changes
2. Performance is independent of variation in temperature.
3. They do not use any excitation source, they can be used in hazardous areas.
4. They can measure high impact loads with great accuracy.
Disadvantages:-
1. Bulky and and occupies much space
2. Cost of oil is high
3. Transportation is difficult
4. Maintenance is difficult
3.1.2 Pneumatic Load cell (Also known as pneumatic force meter)
Basic principle:- If a force is applied to one side of a diaphragm and an air pressure is applied to
the other side, some particular value of pressure will be necessary to exactly balance the force.
This pressure is proportional to the
applied force.

Construction:- It consists of a
diaphragm to which a rod and baffle
(flapper) are attached, just near the
baffle (flapper) a nozzle is placed
which is connected to the air supply
and a pressure measuring device
such as a manometer, Bourdon tube,
etc.. as shown in figure.
Working:- When the force to be
measured acts on the rod attached to
the diaphragm, the diaphragm
moves downward and the baffle covers the nozzle, which in turn causes an increase in the nozzle
back pressure since the nozzle is more nearly shut off. The increase in nozzle back pressure
acting on the diaphragm produces an effective upward force which tends to return the diaphragm
to its former position. An equilibrium position or balanced position is achieved for a particular
constant downward force at a specific nozzle opening and corresponding nozzle back pressure.
The back pressure is indicated on a manometer or bourdon tube or any other force measuring
secondary transducer, which is calibrated in terms of force to be measured.
Advantages:-
1. Suitable for use in hazardous or explosive areas
2. They require no special transmitting system
3. They are relatively free from temperature related errors
4. They can not cause product contamination due to leakage or hydraulic fluid

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Disadvantages and Limitations:-
1. The air or other gasses used as the operating medium must be dry enough to prevent
condensation of water vapor and subsequent freezing at temperatures below 32 degree
fahrenheit or 0 degree celsius.
2. They respond slowly to sudden load changes and therefore are not generally used for test
work.

3.1.3 Electric Force Transducers

Force measurement is done by electric means in which the force is first converted into a
displacement at an elastic element and then the displacement is measured.

a) Proving Ring
The proving ring utilizes the principle of a linear variable differential transformer
(LVDT) which senses the displacement
caused by the force resulting in a proportional
voltage.

Construction:-
It consists of a circular ring of rectangular
cross section of precisely known diameter,
provided with projection lugs (External Boss)
for compressive and tensile loading. An
LVDT is attached with the integral internal
bosses C and D for sensing the displacement
caused by the application of force.
Working:-
When the forces are applied to the ring
through the integral external bosses A and B,
the ring changes its diameter due to the
compression or tension effects which is
known as “ring deflection”. The deflection is
measured by LVDT which converts the ring deflection (or displacement) into a voltage signal
directly proportional to the displacement. An external amplifier may be connected to provide DC
voltage or current to drive the indicators to indicate the measured value of force. In place of
LVDT, any other displacement sensing transducers can be used.
Advantages:-
1. It furnish relatively high output signal levels
2. They give high accuracy.
3. They cover a broad range of measuring capacities.

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b) Strain Gauge Load Cell
It is an electro-mechanical transducer which translates changes in force (or weight) into
change in voltage. The change in voltage can be calibrated directly in terms of the force (or load)
applied to the cell.
Construction:-
It is constructed of wire grids (known as strain gauges) bonded to precisely machined
supporting columns, as shown in figure a. These strain gauges are connected electrically to form
a balanced wheatstone bridge, as shown in figure b. Additional compensation resistors are added
to the circuit for maintaining the accuracy of the bridge over a wide range of temperatures.

Working:-
The principle of operation of the strain gauges load dell depends upon the deflection of
the column. The any two strain gauges bonded to the sides (say X1 and Y1) of the column are
affected by force, and the other stain gauges bonded to the sides (say X2 and Y2) are unaffected
by the force, which is used to minimize the errors due to temperature variations.
When a force to be measured is applied to the supporting column, which is subjected to
stressed compression, the strain gauges (on sides X1 and Y1) decrease in length and increase in
cross sectional area, thus decreasing their electrical resistance. When the column is stressed
tension, the strain gauges (on sides X1 and Y1) are lengthened and decrease in cross sectional
area, thus increasing their electrical resistance. The change in resistance of the strain gauges
causes the wheatstone bridge, which is directly proportional to the force (or load) applied to the
column, to become unbalanced, thus providing a linear output voltage signal with respect to the
force.

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Advantages:-
1. Small and compact in size
2. They are inexpensive
3. Respond rapidly to load variations
4. Suitable for measurements where an electrical output signal is desired
Limitations:-
1. They have to be protected from angular or non-axial loads
2. Overloads greatly in excess of their ratings should be avoided.

3.2 TORQUE MEASUREMENT

The torque is defined as the force which tends to change the linear motion or rotation of
the body.
OR
The turning or twisting moment of a force about an axis.
Torque; T = FD
Where, T = torque
F = force
D = perpendicular distance from the axis of rotation of the line of action of the force.
There are two types of torque sensors available for the measurement of torque on process
machine.
● In-line rotating torque sensors
● In-line stationary torque sensors

3.2.1 In-line Rotating Torque Sensor

It is used for the measurement of rotating equipment.

Construction:-
It consists of a metal shaft
with bonded strain gauges
electrically connected in the
form of a wheatstone bridge.
Figure a illustrates the stress
acting on a rotating shaft
subject to torsion in
connection with the
application of torque. The
strain gauges are kept on the
shaft at precisely 45 degrees
to the shaft axis to sense
compressive and tensile

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deformation due to torsion. The strain gauges 1 and 3 must be diametrically opposite as must
strain gauges 2 and 4. The strain gauges are connected in the form of a wheatstone bridge (the
four strain gauges act as the arms). Bridge power and output voltage may be connected to the
sensor through slip rings and brushes. This type of pickoff is limited to rotational speed at the
brush surfaces, measurement is affected due to the contact resistances, contact friction, and
heating effect.
The sensor with non-contacting power supply and signal pickoff is shown in figure b, in
which the disadvantages of slip ring are avoided. The bridge power and output signals are
transmitted between the rotating and stationary members through transformers T1 and T2.
Working:-
Due to a torsion in connection with the application of torque, in one direction, at 45
degrees angle to the axis, pure tensile stress exists, whereas 45 degree in the other direction pure
compressive stress extant. The rotor shaft is elastic and will deflect minutely under the imposed
stresses. The output of the wheatstone bridge is in proportion to torsion and hence the applied
torque on the shaft. The output is a sine wave, whose amplitude is a function of torque.
3.2.2 In-line Stationary Torque Sensor
Principle of operation:- Wiedemann Magnetostriction effect. The magnetostriction effect causes
changes in the permeability of the materials subjected to tensile or compressive stresses. The
permeability (which is a magnetic property related to the ability of the material to concentrate
magnetic flux) increases under tensile stress and decreases under compressive stress.

Construction:- It consists of two

primary and two secondary windings
mounted near the rotating shaft, as
shown in figure. The secondary coils
S1 and S2 are coupled by magnetic
lines of flux through the shaft to the
primary windings.
Working:-
When there is no loading on the
shaft, the permeability of the shaft is
uniform and equal but opposite
voltages are induced in the secondary
coils S1 and S2. When the shaft is
under torsion, permeability and the
number of magnetic lines of flux
increase in the direction of tension and decrease in the direction of compression. The voltage
induced in the secondary coils S1 and S2 do not cancel each other and their algebraic sum is
proportional to the torque.

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3.2.3 Proximity Torque Sensors
By use of a proximity sensor, the rotating shaft torque is determined by measuring the angular
displacement between the two sections of a rotating shaft.

Construction and working:-

It consists of two identical
toothed wheels (or gears) fixed
on a shaft, a certain distance
apart, as shown in figure. Two
proximity sensors (magnetic
pickups) are placed one at each
wheel. When the shaft rotates
due to the applied torque, the
tooth of the wheel passes the
proximity (magnetic pickup)
sensors due to which alternating
voltages are produced, whose
phase difference is proportional
to the applied torque.

3.3 SPEED MEASUREMENT

In industrial processes, speed is a variable that refers to the revolutions per minute of
some piece of rotating equipment. Speed is a scalar quantity equal to the magnitude of velocity.
There are various methods of measurements available , but tachometers are the most frequently
used device, used for the measurement of angular speed, usually in revolutions per minute (rpm),
although they can be calibrated in many other meaningful units dependent upon application, such
as feet per minute, miles per hour, yards per minutes, or even in terms of production units per
unit time.
There are two types of tachometers:
1. Mechanical tachometers
Employs only mechanical parts and mechanical movements for the measurement of
speed. The three types of mechanical tachometers are:
● Revolution counters (mentioned on the syllabus)
● Centrifugal-force tachometers
● Resonance tachometers
2. Electrical tachometers
It consists of a transducer which converts the rotational speed into an electrical signal,
coupled with a recorder or an indicator to indicate the measured value of speed. The electrical
signal may be either an analog signal which can be used for analog indication, or pulse which

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can be digitally counted in terms of revolution in unit time. Following are the different types of
electrical tachometers:
● Eddy-current or magnetic drag-type tachometers(mentioned on the syllabus)
● Electric generator tachometers, either AC or DC (mentioned on the syllabus)
● Stroboscopic tachometers (mentioned on the syllabus)
● Contactless tachometers
● Frequency tachometers
● Ignition-type tachometers
3.3.1 Revolution Counter
The revolution counter is used with a timing device of some form to determine the
number of revolutions in a measured length of time. Thus it measures an average rotational speed
rather than an instantaneous rotational speed.

Construction and working:- The

revolution counter, sometimes called a
speed counter, consists of a worm gear
which is also the shaft attachment and
is driven by the speed source. The
worm drives the spur gear which in turn
actuates the pointer on a calibrated dial.
The pointer indicates the number of
revolutions turned by the input shaft in
a certain length of time. The unit
requires a separate timer to measure the
time interval. The revolution counter,
thus, gives an average rotational speed rather than an instantaneous rotational speed. Such speed
counters are limited to low speed engines which permit reading the counter at definite time
intervals. A properly designed and manufactured revolution counter would give a satisfactory
speed measure.
The difficulty of starting a counter and a watch at exactly the same time led to the
development of tachoscope, which consists of a revolution counter incorporating a built-in
timing device. The two components are integrally mounted, and start simultaneously when the
contact point is pressed against the rotating shaft. The instrument runs until the contact point is
disengaged from the shaft. The rotational speed is computed from the readings of the counter and
timer.

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3.3.2 Magnetic drag or Eddy current tachometer
It is a contact type of electrical tachometer, i.e. physical contact is made with the shaft or
rotating machine parts, whose speed is to be measured. In the magnetic-drag or eddy current type
of tachometer, a transducer produces an analog signal in the form of continuous drag due to eddy
currents induced in an
aluminium cup. The
induced current is
proportional to speed.

Construction:- It consists
of a shaft known as
tachometer shaft which is
coupled to the rotating
shaft or parts of the
machine whose speed is to
be measured. This
tachometer shaft is
connected to a permanent
magnet. This permanent
magnet is surrounded by a cup made up of nonmagnetic but conductive material like aluminium.
The other end of the aluminium cup is connected to the pointer on a scale through a helical
spring, which provides necessary controlling torque.
Working:-
Due to the rotation of the machine shaft, the connected tachometer shaft and hence, the
permanent magnet starts rotating. This rotation of magnet induces eddy currents and hence, emf
in the nonmagnetic aluminium cup. The induced eddy currents produce a twisting moment or
torque in the cup, which acts against the torque of helical spring. Due to the induced torque, the
cup turns in the direction of the rotating magnet, till the torque induced (developed) becomes
equal to torque on helical spring. The pointer attached to the cup moves over a calibrated scale
(dial), indicating the angular speed of the shaft or rotating parts of the machine.
Advantages:-
1. Low cost
2. Rigid in construction
3. Very low maintenance
Disadvantages:-
1. At very high speeds, it gives no linear characteristics.
2. Calibration is difficult. (it is essential that input voltage must be maintained absolutely
constant.)

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3.3.3 DC Tachometer generator
Working principle:-
When the closed conductor moves in the magnetic field, EMF induces in the conductor.
The magnitude of the induced emf depends on the flux link with the conductor and the speed of
the shaft.

Construction and Working:-

Permanent magnet, armature, commutator, brushes, variable resistor, and the moving coil
voltmeter are the main parts of the DC tachometer generator. The machine whose speed is to be
measured is coupled to the armature through the shaft of the DC tachometer generator.
The armature of the DC generator revolves between the constant field of the permanent
magnet. The rotation induces the emf in the coil (armature) The emf generated is proportional to
the product of flux and speed. Since the flux of the permanent magnet is constant, the voltage
generated is proportional to speed.
The commutator converts the alternating current of the armature coil to the direct current
with the help of the brushes. The moving coil voltmeter measures the induced emf, and it is
calibrated directly in terms of speed. The polarity of the induced voltage determines the direction
of motion of the shaft. The resistance is connected in series with the voltmeter for controlling the
heavy current of the armature.
The emf induces in the dc tachometer generator is given as,

Where, E – generated voltage

Φ – flux per poles in Weber
P- number of poles
N – speed in revolution per minutes

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 Z – the number of the conductor in armature windings.
a – number of the parallel path in the armature windings.

Advantages:-
1. The polarity of the induced voltages indicates the direction of rotation of the shaft.
2. The conventional DC type voltmeter is used for measuring the induced voltage.

Disadvantages:-
1. The commutator and brushes require periodic maintenance.
2. The output resistance of the DC tachometer is kept high as compared to the input
resistance. If the large current is induced in the armature conductor, the constant field of
the permanent magnet will be distorted.
3.3.4 AC Tachometer generator
The DC tachometer generator uses the commutator and brushes which have many
disadvantages. The AC tachometer generator is designed for reducing the problems associated
with the DC tachometer generator. The AC tachometer has a stationary armature and rotating
magnetic field. Thus, the commutator and brushes are absent in the AC tachometer generator.

The rotating magnetic field induces the EMF in the stationary coil of the stator. The
amplitude and frequency of the induced emf are equivalent to the speed of the shaft. Thus, either
amplitude or frequency is used for measuring the angular velocity.

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 The above mentioned circuit is used for measuring the speed of the rotor by considering
the amplitude of the induced voltage. The induced voltages are rectified and then passed to the
capacitor filter for smoothening the ripples of rectified voltages and is measured with a PMCC
voltmeter.
3.3.5 Stroboscope
It is a simple, portable, manually operated device used for measurement of periodic or
rotary motion.
Working principle:-
If a strong light is caused to flash on the moving object, the object will appear stationary,
if the flashing frequency is equal to the speed of the moving object.
OR
To synchronize a flashing light with rotation of the shaft, making it appear as stand still
(stationery).
Construction:-

Basically a stroboscope is a source of

variable frequency flashing light (see
figure 1). The flashing frequency can be
set manually by the operator. Thus in
short stroboscopes consist of a strobotron.
Strobotron means source of flashlight,
whose frequency can be varied or
controlled.
Frequency of the flashing light
should be equal to the angular speed of
the shaft. Therefore we need a source of
light, having a provision of changing the
flashing frequency of light emitted.

Working:-

A distinct or reference
mark is made (put) on the
shaft (rotating body), whose
speed is to be measured.
The stroboscope is made to
strike light on the mark,
refer figure 2. Circular
(rotary) knob is rotated
manually and the flashing

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frequency of light is adjusted, until the mark appears stationary. When this condition is achieved,
it means that the flashing frequency of light is equal to angular speed of the shaft. Rotation of
circular knob can be read from the scale of stroboscope, which is directly calibrated to give
angular speed of shaft or rotating parts in R.P.M
Advantages:-
1. It requires no special attachment with the shaft
2. This method imposes no load on the shaft
3. Contactless operation
Disadvantages:-
1. Variable frequency of oscillator cannot be stabilized to give a fixed frequency
2. This method is less accurate
3. It can not be used, where ambient lightning is above a certain value.
Applications:-
1. Used to measure periodic or rotary motions
2. Used to measure speed
3. Spot check on machinery speeds and for laboratory work

3.4 VELOCITY MEASUREMENT

3.4.1 Translational Velocity Transducer
The translational velocity transducer is simply known as velocity transducer. It is a moving
magnet type velocity transducer.
Principle of operation:-
When a permanent magnet moves inside a coil, the change in the length of the air gap
varies the reluctance. Hence the output voltage is directly proportional to the rate of change of
the length of the air gap (change in length produced by velocity). Thus the output voltage
becomes a measure of the velocity when calibrated.

Construction:-
The rod of the permanent magnet
is acting as a sensing element.
The permanent magnetic rod is
rigidly coupled to the device
whose velocity is being measured.
There is a coil surrounding the
permanent magnet. The
permanent magnet is movable,
that is, it can move in and out of
the coil.

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Operation:-
The instrument is fixed to the device whose velocity is to be measured. Due to the
application of the velocity, the permanent magnet moves in or out of the coil, due to its motion,
the length of the air gap varies. The output voltage also varies due to the motion of the magnet
and the amplitude of the voltage is directly proportional to velocity. The polarity of the output
voltages determines the direction of the velocity.
Advantages:-
1. Its maintenance is negligible.
2. The output voltage is linearly proportional to velocity.
3. Cost of manufacturing is less.
Disadvantages:-
1. Performance is affected by stray magnetic fields and hence noise is caused.
2. Frequency response is poor.

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