Chapter II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

Science education remains dynamic in its response to increasing

demands for critical thinking, inquiry learning, and integration of

technology into classrooms. At the core of developments are those

associated with teacher readiness—defined not simply by knowledge in

subject matter, yet by pedagogy, resource environment, and capacity

for flexibility in response to current instructional demands (Darling-

Hammond et al., 2020; Cruz et al., 2023). Current literature highlights

a need for ongoing teacher development, most critically in science,

where knowledge advances quickly enough to necessitate flexibility

from teachers who need to be well-supported (Ball & Forzani, 2021;

Reyes et al., 2022).

Teacher Preparedness in Science Education

Teacher preparedness plays a vital role in ensuring quality

science instruction, especially in geographically isolated or resource-

constrained areas. Recent research emphasizes that effective science

teaching requires a well-rounded foundation in pedagogical techniques,

subject matter expertise, and classroom management adapted to

specific learning contexts (Kang, Windschitl, & Thompson, 2021). In

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rural communities, teachers often face limited access to professional

growth opportunities, instructional materials, and peer collaboration,

which negatively affect the implementation of effective teaching

strategies (Flores, 2022; Bagaka’s, 2021). These challenges hinder the

use of student-centered, inquiry-based learning approaches that foster

critical thinking and conceptual understanding (Lee & Buxton, 2020).

Additionally, rapid curriculum reforms and the integration of

technology in teaching call for sustained support systems and access

to continuous professional development (Darling-Hammond & Hyler,

2020). The OECD (2023) also highlights that strengthening teacher

competencies and providing targeted training are essential for

improving education quality in rural and underserved settings. Thus,

exploring the current level of preparedness among science teachers in

such contexts is key to identifying professional gaps and developing

responsive training interventions.

Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) is a central component in

quality science instruction, allowing teachers to integrate complex

subject matter with student levels of knowledge and interest. Park and

Suh (2021) hold that PCK equips science teachers with ways to create

instruction at once rich in content yet learner-focused, leading to

enhanced student engagement and conceptual clarity. Cruz et al.

(2023) stress that teachers with enhanced PCK are better positioned to
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promote inquiry-delivery of lessons, use context-dependent examples,

and employ differentiated strategies in response to varying learning

requirements. These findings lead us to believe that enhancing PCK

through targeted training remains crucial in enhancing science

education quality, especially where there are few instructional

guidelines. Later studies confirm that science instructors with a high

level of PCK are more capable to engage students in conceptual

thinking, inquiry processes, and scientific discourse (Park & Suh, 2021).

In terms of the Philippine K–12 curriculum, where scientific literacy and

critical thinking are highlighted, PCK remains crucial to effective

classroom implementation.

Teacher training, both pre-service and in-service, significantly

shapes the preparedness of science teachers. According to a study by

Ball and Forzani (2021), effective teacher preparation programs

provide both theoretical grounding and practical teaching experience

that develop science teaching competencies. In the Philippine context,

the Department of Education’s continuous implementation of Learning

Action Cells (LAC) and regional training has aimed to address gaps in

content knowledge and methodology (DepEd, 2023). However,

disparities remain between urban and rural areas in access to such

opportunities, making localized studies such as the one in Lupon

District particularly necessary.

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Teacher self-efficacy also comes into play when it comes to being

well-prepared. A recent study by Reyes et al. (2022) indicates that

highly self-confident teachers are more inclined to use open-innovative

approaches, respond to learner needs, and resolve resource

challenges. Lekhu's (2023) finding concurs, identifying a close link

between teacher efficacy and effective use of pedagogic content

knowledge in resource-poor classrooms. Reforms in curriculum also

require adaptive pedagogy. Mangarin and Macayana (2024) reported

uneven appropriation despite the receptibility of science teachers to

reform due to a lack of clarity in new standards and inadequate

preparation. Hands-on mentorship coupled with explicit instructional

guides are often necessary for teachers to effectively shift to learner-

centric, constructivist practices. A recent Philippine survey by Reyes et

al. (2022) reported more resilient response by self-proclaimedly more

efficacious science teachers in gearing up against classroom problems,

even in the changeover to blended and flexible modes. This confirms

psychological readiness aside from technical proficiency.

Teacher readiness also involves adapting to curriculum reform.

Science curriculum reform in most developing nations, including the

Philippines, necessitates a change in teachers toward constructivist

and student-centered practice. Despite this, most teachers say they

are not ready because they lack enough training and guidelines for

implementation (Cervantes & Santiago, 2021). For teachers from rural

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school districts, lack of curriculum guides, instructional exemplars, and

supervision makes effective reform implementation even more

challenging, pointing toward a systemic lack of teacher support.

In the post-pandemic landscape, technological competence has

emerged as an essential component of teacher preparedness. The

integration of digital tools in science teaching not only enhances

content delivery but also supports remote and blended learning setups.

According to a recent study by Cruz et al. (2023), science teachers who

were technologically prepared adapted more effectively during the

COVID-19 school closures and continued using digital tools even after

face-to-face classes resumed. This underscores the need for

continuous professional development in ICT for science teachers,

especially in regions with limited digital infrastructure.

Challenges Faced by Science Teachers in Rural and

Underserved Areas

The challenges experienced by science teachers in rural and

underserved areas are central to understanding teacher preparedness,

particularly in geographically isolated districts. As your study aims to

explore both the readiness and the barriers faced by educators in the

science classroom, it is crucial to situate these within the broader

educational struggles tied to access, resources, and policy limitations

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in rural settings. These conditions directly impact the quality of

instruction, student engagement, and science learning outcomes

(UNESCO, 2022).

One of the most prominent challenges reported in rural science

classrooms is the lack of access to updated laboratory equipment and

teaching resources. Teachers often have to rely on improvised

materials due to the absence of standard science tools, which

compromises the hands-on and inquiry-based nature of science

education (Ball & Forzani, 2022). This resource gap not only limits

content delivery but also reduces student interest and understanding,

especially in topics that are abstract or experiment-based.

In addition, rural science teachers frequently face professional

isolation and limited access to professional development programs.

According to MacKinnon and Silver (2023), teachers in far-flung areas

are less likely to attend training workshops, seminars, and

collaborative learning opportunities due to transportation barriers,

internet connectivity issues, or lack of funding. This further widens the

knowledge and skills gap between rural and urban educators, creating

disparities in instructional quality and innovation in the classroom.

Another recurring issue is the heavy teaching load and multi-

grade teaching responsibilities common in remote schools. Teachers

are often required to teach multiple subjects or handle large class sizes
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with diverse student needs, affecting their ability to plan, assess, and

implement effective science lessons (Gonzales et al., 2023). These

overlapping roles increase teacher stress and burnout, contributing to

high turnover rates in rural schools and disrupting the continuity of

science instruction.

Moreover, language barriers and cultural disconnects sometimes

hinder science instruction in indigenous and rural communities.

Teachers who are not from the local area may struggle to relate

scientific concepts to students' lived experiences, making science

appear foreign or irrelevant (Salazar & Reyes, 2022). The lack of

contextualized teaching materials aligned with local culture and

environment has been flagged as a major gap in science education

policy.

Addressing these challenges requires targeted interventions and

sustained support from educational stakeholders, including DepEd,

local government units, and non-government organizations.

Investments in infrastructure, access to digital tools, localized training,

and curriculum contextualization have shown promising results in

improving rural science education (Torres et al., 2022). As the study

seeks to explore the realities of teachers in Lupon District, these

findings offer a lens through which to understand and evaluate the

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lived experiences of science educators in similarly underserved

contexts.

Strategies and Support Systems to Enhance Science Teaching

Understanding the strategies and support systems that enhance

science teaching is essential in exploring teacher preparedness and

challenges, particularly in rural areas. Teachers' capacity to effectively

deliver science education often depends not only on their academic

background or training but also on the external supports they receive.

These may include access to teaching materials, professional

development opportunities, peer collaboration, and administrative

backing. Therefore, the investigation into these support systems

directly contributes to identifying what enables or hinders teacher

preparedness in the science classroom, which is central to the study’s

focus.

Ongoing professional development plays a key role in enhancing

science teaching, especially in areas where access to formal training is

limited. Recent findings stress the importance of continuous, subject-

specific training in helping educators improve their teaching methods

and support student achievement (Darling-Hammond & Hyler, 2020).

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In the Philippine education system, Learning Action Cells (LACs) have

become an essential approach to teacher collaboration and local

problem-solving. These school-based learning groups are especially

valuable in remote locations where centralized training is not always

available (Department of Education [DepEd], 2021). Engaging in

regular LAC sessions provides teachers with opportunities to exchange

ideas, reflect on classroom practices, and jointly tackle instructional

issues (Quijano, 2022; Villena & Manlangit, 2023). Moreover, global

reports indicate that localized and collaborative professional learning

environments contribute to better teaching outcomes and help bridge

instructional gaps in science education (UNESCO, 2021).

To enhance science learning in settings with limited resources,

the development and use of localized instructional materials have

gained prominence. Localized materials are adapted to the learners'

immediate environment and experiences, making scientific concepts

more relatable and easier to grasp. As stressed by Bernardo et al.

(2020), localized instruction promotes higher engagement and better

understanding among students, especially in public schools where

access to standard laboratory resources is minimal. DepEd Order No.

42, s. 2017 encourages the contextualization of lessons to enhance

relevance and student participation, directly supporting science

teachers working in geographically isolated areas like Lupon District.

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With the increasing integration of technology in education, digital

tools have become indispensable in enhancing science instruction.

Even in under-resourced schools, the use of low-cost or open-access

platforms can support teacher preparedness. According to Llego and

Agbisit (2022), teachers who utilize blended learning strategies and

digital simulations in science classes report increased student

motivation and content mastery. However, the same study emphasizes

the need for reliable internet infrastructure and ICT training to

maximize these benefits, highlighting the disparity that rural schools

continue to face in implementing tech-based solutions.

Institutional support from school leaders and the education

department plays a significant role in the success of science teaching

initiatives. School heads who actively support teacher innovation and

allocate resources for science instruction help build a positive teaching

environment (Sibayan & Francisco, 2021). Moreover, national policies

such as the K to 12 Basic Education Curriculum and the

implementation of Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics

(STEM) tracks emphasize science education, but actual implementation

success hinges on strong local leadership and resource allocation. In

this light, the role of district-level and school-level administrators in

Lupon becomes a key point of analysis for this study.

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Community engagement and partnerships with local

organizations and higher education institutions can also serve as

valuable support systems for science teachers. According to Reyes and

Santos (2023), collaborations between schools and nearby colleges or

NGOs can provide additional teaching resources, training sessions, and

even co-teaching opportunities. These partnerships not only enhance

the quality of instruction but also alleviate the isolation often felt by

teachers in rural communities. For areas like Lupon, where systemic

challenges are compounded by geographic constraints, such

community-based support may prove to be both feasible and

sustainable.

Methodological Review
Recent studies on science teacher preparedness have

increasingly turned to mixed methods research (MMR) as a way to

explore both the measurable and more nuanced aspects of teaching

quality (Cruz et al., 2023; Bumagat et al., 2023). This kind of research

brings together the strengths of both quantitative data—like surveys—

and qualitative insights from interviews. It provides a fuller picture of

what science teachers are experiencing, how well they’re being

supported, and what challenges they face in the classroom. For

example, Bumagat et al. (2023) used a convergent design to combine

survey results with personal teacher interviews. This allowed them not
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only to quantify common issues but also to better understand how

teachers were creatively coping with challenges in online science

instruction.

In the Philippine setting, many studies continue to rely on

descriptive statistics, using tools like mean and standard deviation to

interpret responses from Likert-scale instruments (Reyes et al., 2022).

Others go further by applying Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) to explore

whether differences in preparedness levels exist depending on factors

like years of teaching experience or academic qualifications (Guanzon

et al., 2023). While these approaches help researchers draw broad

comparisons, they often don’t capture the more personal, situational

challenges teachers deal with daily.

On the qualitative side, many researchers use thematic analysis,

particularly following Braun and Clarke’s (2021) widely respected

framework. This method helps uncover recurring themes from open-

ended responses and interview data—like common classroom

struggles, gaps in professional development, or lack of resources. In

addition, the growing use of Key Informant Interviews (KII) has proven

valuable for gaining deeper, experience-based insights from teachers

themselves (Reyes & Santos, 2023). These interviews provide a clearer

understanding of how policies and training programs are actually felt

and applied at the ground level.

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While many existing studies stick to either a quantitative or

qualitative approach, this study takes a different route. It adopts a

convergent mixed methods design, which means survey data is

collected and analyzed alongside in-depth interviews from selected

participants. The benefit of this is that the findings can be cross-

checked, or triangulated, helping to confirm patterns and bring to light

both general trends and specific teacher experiences.

As Cruz et al. (2023) point out, educational issues like teacher

preparedness are complex and layered. A survey alone might tell us

how prepared teachers feel on average—but it likely won’t explain the

emotional toll, lack of resources, or the kind of support teachers truly

need. On the flip side, qualitative studies like Reyes et al. (2022) offer

rich insights but may not apply to broader contexts. That’s why

combining both methods offers a clearer, more balanced view.

By integrating these two approaches, this study not only builds

on previous research but also addresses its limitations. Using a

convergent mixed methods design ensures that the results are both

statistically valid and deeply grounded in real classroom experiences.

This makes the findings more useful for educators, policymakers, and

future researchers alike. In doing so, the study sets itself apart from

traditional single-method approaches and aligns with current best

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practices in education research (Bumagat et al., 2023; Braun & Clarke,

2021; Reyes & Santos, 2023).

Synthesis

Teacher preparation continues to be a key determinant in

providing quality science education, especially in rural and

disadvantaged contexts. The demands of science education—which

mandate a deep integration of subject matter knowledge, pedagogy,

and contextual awareness—require teachers to be adequately trained

to address local educational circumstances (Guanzon et al., 2023;

Torres et al., 2022). Despite continued intervention, however, a gap in

knowledge exists to know how teachers in physically isolated contexts

manage limited training opportunities, few teaching provisions, and the

culture-linguistic diversity among children (Salazar & Reyes, 2022;

Reyes et al., 2022). Much remains to be known about how intersecting

challenges impact their decision making in education and children's

learning outcomes, necessitating a more intensive study (Cruz et al.,

2023)."

Additionally, while innovations like localized training sessions and

cooperative mechanisms like Learning Action Cells have been rolled

out, more empirical assessment of their long-term impact, especially in

rural settings, is lacking (Bautista & Balinas, 2022; DepEd, 2023).

Uncertainty exists about how uniformly these support systems are

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applied at different districts and how they are translated into better

science pedagogy. Little is known about how teachers reuse digital

tools and tailored materials in resource-starved contexts, and how

innovations affect student learning engagement and understanding

(Llego & Agbisit, 2022; Cruz et al., 2023). Closing these gaps can shed

light on the particular kinds of institutional assistance and teacher

development most effective for rural science teachers.

Last, the contribution of external partnerships towards

strengthening science education in rural contexts remains uncharted.

Whereas collaboration with local institutions and community members

holds promise, more systematic studies are required to understand

how partnerships are initiated, nurtured, and expanded in

circumstances where infrastructure and assistance are limited (Reyes

& Santos, 2023; Torres et al., 2022).

The lack of consistent frameworks for integrating community-

based resources into science instruction highlights another area where

further inquiry is necessary. By bridging these gaps, future research

can provide more targeted recommendations for building a resilient

and inclusive science education system in rural districts like Lupon.

Theory Base
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This study shall be based to the theory of Planned Behavior

which was developed by Icek Ajzen (1991) in order to explain the

human behavior and also decision – making. In this theory, the

behavior of an individual is shaped and influenced by these three

components: a. Attitude toward preparedness, b. Subjective norms,

and c. Perceived behavioral control. In this study, the said theory

provides a framework of understanding in terms of how science

teachers’ preparedness and instructional decisions are influenced

based by their attitudes toward preparation, the expectations of their

professional community and their perceived ability to overcome

challenges in the classroom. This theory can be used by the researcher

in order to formulate or develop the needed output of this study which

is to provide training programs in order to address the challenges that

these teachers face and increase the preparedness and competencies

of the said teachers.

Conceptual Framework

In relation to the conceptual framework of this study, the researcher

will use the IPO model which is the input – process – output model. This

will provide the researcher a streamlined process in order to acquire

the needed output for this study. The IPO model are as follows:
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Figure 1. Conceptual Framework of the Study

In the figure stated above, the input aspect is the demographic

profile of the respondents which are the age, sex, civil status, and

length of service. Moreover, input variables also include the

assessment of the teachers’ preparedness and challenges they face in

facilitating science classes. In terms of the process aspect, the

researcher will use a survey questionnaire and employ necessary

statistical treatment of the data gathered. Furthermore, it will be

analyzed, summarized and interpreted in order to derived to the output

of the study which is to propose training programs in order to increase

the teachers’ preparedness and competencies.

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