UNIT III FORCE, MAGNETIC AND HEADING SENSORS

3.1 Load Cell (Pressure Cell)

A load cell is a transducer that converts mechanical force into electrical signals.
There are many different types of load cells that operate in different ways, but the most
commonly used load cell today is the strain gage (or strain gauge) load cell. A strain
gage load cells use an array of strain gages to measure the deformation of a structural
member and convert it into an electrical signal. Figure shows the load cell. A length of
bar is used as the active element. The weight of the load is applies a particular stress to
the bar.

As the stress is applied along the direction of S, the steel bar experiences a
compression along that axis and an expression along the X and Y axes. As a result gauge
experiences a decrease in resistance while gauge B undergoes an increase in
resistance. When these two gauges and the gauge on the two remaining sides of steel
are connected to form a bridge circuit, four times the sensitivity of a simple gauge bridge
is obtained. This makes the load cell sensitive to very small values of applied stress as
well as to extremely heavy loads.

Other types of load cell include piezoelectric useful for dynamic

measurements of force and vibrating wire load cells which are useful in geomechanical
applications due to low amounts of drift.
3.2 Magnetic sensor

Magnetic sensors are the solid state devices used in detecting and sensing the
distance, speed, rotation, angle, and position by converting magnetic information into
electrical signals. The converted signals are processed by electrical circuits. These
sensors became popular and used in several applications because of their easy operation,
and tolerance to high vibrations, water, and dust.

These are used to detect the strength of the magnetic field and geo-magnetism
generated due to the current or magnet. The output of the magnetic sensors is used to
monitor the direction, location, revolution, angle, distance, speed, position, and the
presence of electric current.

Magnetic field type sensors use an internal magnet or permanent magnet to detect
electromagnetic fields directly. The built-in magnetic sensor detects iron and generates
an analog or digital output signal. Reed switches, Hall switches, and other external
magnetic sensors detect the magnetic field of a magnet or electric coil. Also available in
analog and digital versions.

Magnetic Sensor Working Principle

The magnetic sensor working principle is based on the type of sensor element
used. Any type of magnetic sensor works with the magnetic field of the Earth. A simple
magnetic sensor can detect the moving ferrous. When an iron object is moved close to
the coil or wire wound on a permanent magnet, then the magnetic flux through the coil
changes and generates the voltage at the terminals of the coil.

Consider the coiled magnetic sensor, where the coil is used as a simple sensor
element to understand the working of a magnetic sensor. However, the coil is used to
provide limited functionality. So, it is combined with other magnetic materials coils, to
construct a highly sensitive magnetic sensor. The coils used in magnetic sensors in a
wide range of applications include fluxgate sensors, search coils, resolvers, rotation, and
angle sensors.

The coil itself can’t be used to measure magnetic fields directly, but it can detect
changes or vibrations in the magnetic field. When the magnet is brought closer to the
coil, the coil’s magnetic flux density will increase. This results in creating the opposite
forces in the form of an induced current and electromotive force (EMF). When the
movement of the coil stops, the change in the magnetic flux density also stops, and the
induced EMF and current stop.

Observe the induced EMF and the induced current, to determine the ratio of the
change in density and direction of the magnetic flux.

Types of Magnetic Sensors

The classification of Magnetic sensors can be done based on detecting the

dissimilarity of magnetic sensors like a low field, earth field, and bias magnetic field
sensors.

3.3 Magnetoresistor

The resistance of some of the metal and the semiconductor material varies in the
presence of the magnetic field, this effect is called the magnetoresistance. The element
which has these effects is known as the magnetoresistor. In other words, the
magnetoresistor is a type of resistor whose resistance varies with the magnetic field.

The magnetoresistor is used for determining the presence of a magnetic field their
strength and the direction of the force. It is made of the indium antimonide or indium
arsenide semiconductor material.

MR sensors works on the principal of the change in the electrical resistance when
magnetic field is applied to a magnetoresistance element in the direction parallel to the
MR material.
 An MR magnetic sensor detects the angle of the parallel magnetic field not the
strength of the magnetic field. Therefore MR sensors have comparatively larger
detectable area.

Advantages

 Non contact operation so there is no wear and friction. Hence unlimited number of
operating cycles
 high reliability due to their rugged construction
 Low and stable offset
 Due to its high sensitivity it can be used to measure weak magnetic fields

Disadvantages

 Sensitive to interfering magnetic fields.

 Very strong magnetic field can damage the sensor
 Temperature drift

Applications

 Wheel speed sensors

 Angle measurement
 Linear displacement measurement
 Current measurement

3.4 Compass Sensors

Compass sensor is the device whose function is to give the right directions with
respect to the North and South magnetic poles of the earth. The needle present on a
compass always points towards the geometric North of Earth. This device makes use of
principles of magnetism for operation.
But this magnetic force of the earth is so weak that people previously used to
design compass by suspending a thin magnetic strip. In the Compass present in
smartphones magnet is not used as a component because it causes interference in
communication.
Digital Compass Sensor is actually a magnetometer that can measure the Earth’s
magnetic field. With the use of ‘Hall Effect’ and by calculating the ultralow frequency
signals coming from the North or South direction, this sensor can calculate the orientation
and direction.
Working:
The first compass used in the 11th century was a simple structure with a bowl of
water containing a magnetic needle floating on it. Later many improved and reliable
versions were developed. Digital Compass Sensor that is used in the smartphone is based
on the magnetometer sensor.

The resistance of the magnetic sensor present in magnetometer changes in proportional

to the magnetic field present in a particular direction. The magnetometer measures the magnetic
field strength and orientation.

This information from magnetometer is stored by the CPU as digital data. This Sensor always
points towards the Geometric North. The Compass found in electric devices is a solid-state sensor.
Usually, two or three magnetic sensors are present on the device from which the microprocessor
can read data and detects the orientation of the device.

Magnetic Compass Sensor

There are two configurations of Compass Sensors available based on there working principle.
They are the Magnetic Compass and Gyro Compass. Magnetic Compass contains a magnetic
element to detect the magnetic field. This magnetic element aligns itself with magnetic lines of
Earth’s magnetic field.

Magnetic Compass points towards the magnetic pole Earth. Whereas Gyro compass points
towards the true poles of the earth. Gyro compass consists of a rapidly spinning wheel.

Applications

 Compass sensors were adopted by Western Europe and the Islamic World for
navigation in the early 11th century. Besides navigation of voyages, today this
Sensor is used for a wide range of applications.
 Compass Sensor is the most reliable device for navigation, location and finding
direction. It is highly useful for trekkers to find direction. Compass sensors are
used in aviation and military applications. In construction, the compass sensor is
used to align building material.

3.5 Inclinometer Sensors

An inclinometer is a sensor that measures the magnitude of slope, tilt, elevation,

or depression of an object with respect to the gravity. The tilt indicator sensors are of
various types and sizes.
An inclinometer is a sensor used to measure the magnitude of the inclination angle
or deformation of any structure. The bent is either depicted in percentage or degrees
concerning gravity.
Clinometers are used to measure the slope gradient during activities like
tunnelling, excavation and de-watering. Such activities affect the ground that supports
the structure.
The installation procedure of tilt indicators depends on the application field. It can
be installed vertically to monitor the cut slope or any movement in the shoring wall and
embankment. To monitor the settlement of the soil above the spot of tunnelling,
clinometers are installed horizontally.
Slope gauges (inclinometers) are of different types. Each slope gauge system
requires a combination of equipment and sensors to measure and collect data.
Working:
Electrolytic tilt sensors (Inclinometers) are non-signal conditioned sensing
elements. The function of an electrolytic tilt sensor is to measure an angle or a null or
level position with reference to gravity. The angle may be expressed in any one of the
following: degrees, arc minutes (1/60th of a degree) or arc seconds (1/60th of an arc
minute). These angles are generally referenced to a perpendicular line to gravity called
a null or a zero point. The amount of tilt from this point can be expressed as either
positive or negative angle [2].
A single axis sensor would only measure an angle in one direction. To measure an
angle in all directions, for example, to a compass heading, a dual axis sensor or two
singles axis sensors mounted 90 degrees to each other would be required. This would
allow the measurement to be made in any direction by combining the readings of both
axes as seen in figure.

Fig: Inclinometer Sensor

The tilt sensor functions like a liquid potentiometer. The electrically conductive
fluid creates a variable resistance between the electrodes. When the sensor is in the null
or balanced position, the resistances between the centre electrodes to each outside
electrode are equal. Tilting the sensor from its balanced position changes the two
resistances producing an electrical output proportional to the tilted angle. The major
electrolytic salts are chosen from metal cations, such as sodium, potassium, lithium,
calcium and cesium, of which the ionic species offer good conductivity at every level of
dilution. The electrolytic salts are also selected from anions, such as nitrate, carbonate,
acetate and hydroxide, which resist chemically combining with the metallic elements of
the metal electrode materials. Solvents may include methanol, ethanol, butanol,
propanol and isopropanol that provide the ability to control the viscosity of the
electrolyte, related directly to the response time of tilt sensor.
 Electrolytic tilt sensors must be operated in the AC mode. Any DC will cause the
level to become unstable and even inoperable. The amount of current through the level
must not exceed the maximum. The maximum excitation voltage is 5 volts. Currents
that are above the typical recommended value will cause the level to self-heat and the
readings will drift. The impedance value of the level must be specified to match the type
of circuit used in order to limit the current.

Excitation:

The electrolytic tilt sensor (level) can be energized in a number of ways depending
on the applications and performance required. Typically, there are two ways to energize
and read the level.
One way to energize the level is the use of a bridge type circuit as shown in figure.
This configuration allows for the adjustment of the bridge resistors to match the internal
impedance of the level. It must be noted that the electrolyte's impedance will change
with temperature. The impedance is inversely proportional to temperature. This can
cause readings to change with temperature when the level is in an unbalanced position.
Therefore, temperature compensation is required in an uncontrolled environment.

3.6 Optical Gyroscopes

Optical rotation sensors have now been under development as replacements for
mechanical gyros for over three decades. With little or no moving parts, such devices
are virtually maintenance free and display no gravitational sensitivities, eliminating the
need for gimbals. Fueled by a large market in the automotive industry, highly linear
fiber-optic versions are now evolving that have wide dynamic range and very low
projected costs.
Working:
The basic device consists of two laser beams traveling in opposite directions (i.e.,
counter propagating) around a closed-loop path. The constructive and destructive
interference patterns formed by splitting off and mixing parts of the two beams can be
used to determine the rate and direction of rotation of the device itself.
The ring laser has a hollow doughnut-shaped mirror in which light follows a closed
circular path. Assuming an ideal 100-percent reflective mirror surface, the optical energy
inside the cavity is theoretically unaffected by any rotation of the mirror itself. The
counter propagating light beams mutually reinforce each other to create a stationary
standing wave of intensity peaks and nulls as depicted in Figure, regardless of whether
the gyro is rotating.

Fig: Laser (Optical) Gyroscope

The light and dark fringes of the nodes are analogous to the reflective stripes or
slotted holes in the rotating disk of an incremental optical encoder, and can be
theoretically counted in similar fashion by a light detector mounted on the cavity wall.
(In this analogy, however, the standing-wave “disk” is fixed in the inertial reference
frame, while the normally stationary detector revolves around it.) With each full rotation
of the mirrored doughnut, the detector would see a number of node peak sequel to twice
the optical path length of the beams divided by the wavelength of the light.