interatornic

of
enegy crystal nurnber
oufinea
,a semiConduooYS
cadle "and
E
Semiconduetors
Eneagy xamples
the
resi
To electrons i enesgy stivity
a of
d V.B awels Band -
interactionbegin to
they atoms slicon I5.
coYicuable
ENERGY of Accoreing
wels Theory imbetween
th e SEMICON
in ahe (
si), The
on the
electons brought o
CRYSAL
SPACING
LATTICE thee f mateials
N modification
outer eletrons Solids Conduetors
Germaniunm
to
influence each DUCTOR
TERATOMIC
SPACING, r
ENERGY
GAP
FORBIDDEN Bohr's
shells. in isclose
in the no wich
gy in
totheory Cae) ELECTRONICS
and
modification
n
one an
theouteY other. inslators have
L1sz .3p? etc.
els 262 2p 3s2 [Link]
another
energ8 shetl
Conducivity
Due
of in It ae
ons dwels but to to ar
thee tis fomlarge well

(v) (iv) (5) (ü) t(()heI7 numbe Si

Jthe
engy
and ofdurels for enugy
energy. silicon
enegy of Lage
longig4N t 3Sbut energyband corresponding ( greater
han totalSilicon (si)
and b<r< wen whenenergy when 4N.
fevels is
greaterwhen This sp a a oh
sile dange atoms (
not ep intertomic wels. the r=d), nunber
do collecionlerels ves wels the intesatomic etros
arepossibleevels than the c), outermast Shel
3s wels sp number interatomic
o} inteatomic atoms
have
fowr
filled inderatomic istead occws. C,then
Qnd of lerel stt then
a(rb74
ompletely reduus electrons ot
offree spacing in
to to thee ValenL
and 3p of of changing
whãs spaeingof the
distinguish closelyam. o}
Suoshes. an closelya there ia
spacing
4N the Singte
spaeing outermost
disappens spaig isolated a r Ln iA elctrons
spad enY neighbowing
electrons ot
evels ),the single ies ththure
e no
packed it valance
ss no is
interatomic r the si
are between We inbetween inner thse r
"
becomes
encrgy lwels atom.
gP lvel ss is visible orbit
in
empty. can In lwels. no electrons i-e.
spHng
shells. egual tham ss toms the
such betoen
is This and
or change Ver y is is
ondythsatay the gap 3p of crstad 4.
splitinginteracthion.
equal calld whue Lwel, b theC,
to
elecrons q spredig 6N and Therefore
stuaton,
between Ss in ot but d
to levels these
an 2Nwe C the of
b
 (VI) when the intesatomie spacing r be comes equa to Semiconductors -
a(r=a) Hhen the band of 4-N filel enrgY elsS In semicanductors th valanee ban
is sepratel from the band of 4N unfilled energy is totally filed and the Conduetion band s empiy
levels b
which s
enegy gap called engt band but the eneg gap betwen Conauction band and
lnoted by Eg valance band is quite Smal. It is s than 3 ew.
The douJer Completey filled bamd is calleo E; for gemanju is o72 ev md for silicon it is 1u.
valanea band amel the ubper unfilled bandl is lle At cero kein tempeatwe semiconaluctor behaves
s inaulator.
Cemducion bana. The mininum enegy required for
shif ing electrons from valane bano! to CondyetHon
band i equol to enegy band gp (Eg Insulators
In inulators the energy gap s aute
14N States Large (E; >3w) D to Lange enengy gap no electron
Empty (C.B.) Às able to go from the vaane band to the Conduchon
Ec bamd. Hene electica corduhon in these mateials
s impossible omd they behave as insulator s.
Ep INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS -
Filled 4N States
(V8.)
A pwe sei onduetor wieh Às free of ewey
impwity s called intinsic semiconcl uctor.
Differenu betwun Metads (Conductors), Insulators Examples- silicon (si) and Getmanium (Ge).
and semi conduetors on the baads t Enegy Bomads
Conductors (Metals)
In Conductors the Coduetion EMPTY
and valanea band paatly oveap each othe and there CONDUCTION
BAND
às no enugy gab in between ENERGY
E,0.72eV
CONDUCTION GAP
BAND, EMPTY FILLED
CONDUCTION
OVER LAPPED 8AND ENE
RGYG EMPTY
VALENCE
CONDUCTION Ge BAND
BAND

ALENCE
FILLED
VALENCE
FMLEO Silicon ((14) 1s 2s2passp
BAND BAND
VALENCE
BAND Gernaniun (32.) 1s2s2p 3ssp3ays upt
Conductors Inuuletors Both the atoms (si and Ge) have four valane lecond.
Semiconuctors
 TRe fou valane eleetons ot a gemanium tom ExTRINSSC SEMI CONDUCTORS
form fowr Covalent bands by shaing the eluctrons
f neigntbouing fou gemanium atoms. A doped semiconduetor or a semiconductoY with
Suitable impuity atomn added to t u called extrinsic
The min1mum nmgy regqired to break a cevalnt semicondluctor.
cama s o-72 e for Ge omd 1l ew for si. At room Extrinsic semiConouetors ne of twD types
tempeatue when an eleron breaks aay from a i) n-type SemiconductoY ii) P- type semiconductoy
Covalent bond , the empty place or vacancy litt in
the bona is Called a hode. (i)n-type Semicoductor
when an exteanal electie field is abþie, when a pue semiconauetor of siicon (si) or
tqse f e dcons amd hoes move in opposite Germenim (Ge) odoped with pentavalent tons tich
direcions and Costitute a cwent. The number
of free electrors amd holes ae exactly equal in have' five vaance electrons (Phasphorous, Arsenie, antimony
oY Bismutth ) thenti Calleo n-type Semiconductor.
an intrinsic Semionluctoy.
The fow ot the five valanee electrons oh the
impwity atoms wtn forn Covelent band with he
Aiso the Conductiv ity of intrinsic semiconouctor is aoljoining fow atonms oj the sillcon , ohile the tifth
electron is fre to move- Thus each impuity atom
veng dw. The hole is Consira as an active particle added donotes one tree electron to the crystal. These
in the valance band, haing a posive chage equal
to tnat of an ele ctron. impwuty tons ae caled donor atoms.
since the Conductíon ot electricity ol
to the motion o elecrons l -e. negatve
Doping i Doping is a process of addi tion o7 a That the eauting s e m i c o n l u r k :
n-tye
s
or odonor type aemicodu tor.
Impuity atms to a pure semiconodutor to
moauty its prperties in a Control led mannex. The impurity
toms added ae Calld dopants.
Doping o} a semiconluetor increases ts electieal 0.04SoV
Criuctivity o a great extert. or Si
DONOR
ENERGY

Methods ef doping: STATE

(L) Acd the impuity atons in the melt of semjconaucoy.

(ii)Imaant dopant atoms by bombaing the Semicontucoy
Tn n-type Semicmuctors electrons a majority
(i) Heat ithe Semiconductur in atmesphere ot dopant atoms. Cawies and holes ahe minority caries.
 (i1)P- type SemiConductor Distincton betieen 2ntinsic and extrensic sem condwctrs
when pure semiconcductor ot silicon Csi)
or Germanium (Ge i dopel with a Contolled amount INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR
ob trivalent atoms , which have thre valane electrons 1. It is pure semiconducting material and no 1. tisprepared by doping asmall quantity of umpunty |
(Boron, Aluminium, Gallium, Indium) then tis caled impurity atoms are added to it. atoms to the pure semiconductng malenal
P-type Semiconductor. 2. Examples are crystalline forms of pure silicon 2. Examples are silicon and germanum crystals
The three valance electrons o} the impwity and germanium. with impuity atoms of arsenic, antimony. phos
phorous etc. or indium boron, alum1njum etc.
aton wi) form Covalent bonds with the adjoining thre 3. The number of free electrons in conduction band 3. The number of free electrons and boles is never
atoms o7 germanium (Ge),while there wi be one and the number of holes in valence band is equal. There is excess of clectrons in n-type
incomple te covalent bond wt th a neighbowdng Ge atorm, exactly cqual and very small indeed. Semiconductors and excess of holes in p-type
semiconductors.
this duficiency ot an electron creates a 'hole 4. Is clectrical conductivity is high.
4. Its electrical conductivity is low.
The tivalent atoms ahe calleod aceptoy atoms and S. Its clectrical conductivity is a function of 5. Its electrical conductivity depends upon the
the Conauction o} electricity occws due to motion of temperature alone. temperature as well as on the quantity of impurity
holes ( ie. positive charges),so the reutting senj condckor
is
atoms doped in the strnucture.
calld p-type oT acceptor type semi conduetor.
Difjuence behwen N-type amd p-type Semicondctors
n-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR pTYPE SEMICONDUCTOR
Hole
JACCEPTOR 1. Itis an extrinsic semiconductor whichis obtained 1. Itis an extrinsic semiconduçtor which is obiained
ENERGY
STATE
by doping the irnpurity atoms of Vth group of by doping the impurity atoms of Il group of
periodic table to the pure germanium or silicon periocic tble to the pure germaium or sicon
.01 to .045eV semiconduclor. semiconductor.
2. The impurity atoms added, provide extra 2. The impuity atoms added, create vacancics of
electrons the structure, and are called donor clectrons (ie. holes) in the structure and re
atoms. called acceptor atoms.
3. The electrons are majority carriers and holes are 3. The holes are majority cariers and electrons ae
In p-tpe semiconductor electrns ane minority cariers. minority camiers.
Cassiers and holes ake majority Canriens. 4 The electron density (n,) is much greater than 4. The bole density (n) is much greater than the
he bole density (n), i.e., n, >> electron deosicy (n,), Le., n, 3> n
5. The donor energy level is close to the conduction $. The acceptor energy level is close to vlence band
band and far away from valence band. and is far away from conduction band.
 P-N TUNCTION Due to diffusiorn ot electrons and hales a laye of
when a P-tpe semicomcluctor crsta s joineo positively change donor atoms in n-region and a layer ef
wtth an n-type seniconuctor crystal,then the Tesulting negatively changed acceptor atoms in p-regon are created.
ah angemnt is called a p-n junchon or junchon diode Thia positive anid negative spae change regions on both
sides o p-n junciori wli fom a region oich has
immoble ions and is called dplehon reion.
Fosmation os PN- Junchon -
To makL a p.n junction ,the n type amd p-type Du to positive anad ngative spAce chage region
siicon ytals ae cut into thin wafers. T} on q wafer at p-n junchion, an electie feel is set up acrOss he
af n ty silicon , an aluminium fin id phad and juncion. Due to this ele ctric field lvebped at he
heated to a high temperature S8oc, aluminium ditfuses junction ,an electron on p- siole of the juncton moves to
into silicon and a [Link] semiconductor ds formed on n-side and a holes on m-siale ot junchion moves to p
an n-ty pe semiconalucto Such a formatim oc P-igion siole ot juncton.
on n-gion is called Pn junctim. The motion of these chatge caiesdu
to electrie fied is called drit. As arest oj it, a chift
Diffusion and Drift - cwwent stasts, uohich is opposite in direct ion to the A'fson
cwshent.
when P-n junction s fomed due to oitference In the begining the di fusion Curent is lange
in Coantration o change casies in two regions Pn but dift Csent Aral. As the dittusion proess conti
junction, the elctrons tram n-ragion olifuse througth hues , the strength ot electric fiedd across the junchion increases
the junchion into p-region and holes trom p. region and theeby dift cent increases This process coninues
dituse into n-region. The motion of chage Camiers ges until the oiffusion cwvent becomes eal to the anft
nse to difu sion Cwent acoss the junction. Current Now the p-n junction ds said to be be in equili
brium state qnd thse is no curent across he pn juncion.
Hots
Electron At this stage, the potentia barrie across the junchan has
maximum value Va. Nouw the movement o# majority change
o o
carties acvo ss the junc Hion stops and the potenal acYs
as a barrier , henu known as pofential baiex.
At room tmperatwe (30o k) Va s about [Link]
for Ge md o7v for s. Te Value ot Va inareases with
rise in tumprate for Ge and si.
Electron Depletion Layer Hole
 BIASING OF THE PN JUNCTION The effective valu of barrer potenhal under
rwese bias is (va + V).
There two methods ot biasing the p-n junction
Va
(æ) Forward biasing (ii) Reverse biasing
(1) Forward Biasing i
A p-n junction is sad to be forward biased it (NgV),
the posiive terminal of the extenal batery is Conncted
to p- siole and the ngative terminal to the n-side of Depletion Layer
P-n junc tion.

In reveese biasing, there is no Conduction across

the junction olue to majority cairs· However a f
V8i minoity Caiers of p-n junction diode Cross the junction
1(Vg-V) after being accelrated by high TeeYse bias voltage. They
Constitute a cwent hieh s Called rwese curent or
Depletion Layer
B
leakage custent
CHARACTERISTICs OF PN TUNCTION DÊODE
voltage obposes the
In forward biasing the fomwardbotentas (i) Forwand Charactenstics
poteniad barrier Vo. As a resut of t barrier and
width of depleion layer decreses. The fective valu ot On
plotting a gaph between forward bias voltege
potentiad barrier in forwand biasing is (Ve-V). and forard cwnt we get the tollouing graph
Forward
(2) Rewese Bia sing t Curent

(mA)
Ap-n junctiorn is saud to be reverse biasec if
he positive terminad of the xtemal battery is Connecte
p-sie of the
to n-side and the ngti ve minal do Threshod
Voltage
P-n juncion. Voltage
(for sllcon diodes Vn 0.7T)

In revrse biasing the reverse bias Voltage supports

the potentential baier Ve. As e resul ot t bavie It is found that beyond forwad voltage v =Vk,
potential omd dth of daplettom region inereases . Called knee voltage (o:3 v foy Ge and 07v for Si) the curent
 throgin the junction stats increasing Yapidly ih PN-DtoDE AS A RECTIAIER
vottage and showig the dinear variatiorn. Bud below
th Knc voltage the vaiadion in cuwrent is negligible Rec#fier is aderice which is wed for Converting
md +he cuye is non- inear. alknating cuant /vsltuge into oirct cwentvotage.
There au two types ot rechfier -
(i) ReveTSe Characteristics - (() Half wave rectifier Gi) Fw wave Recifier
On plotting a graph between rererse bas voltage
And renrerse CAvsen, we et the sevease chaacterisHcs as (1) HALF WAVE RECTIFIER
Sihown in fi Fom th cwve we note that in reverse A.c. 1toge to be rectified connected to
biadng ot pn junction , the cunt is very smell (a AA) the
painary winding P.e of a stepdown transfomer.
nd indupedent Voltage upto certain rwerse blas s, S2 s the secondaiy Cotl the transformer. S id
ve ltage , Known as breakodowm vol}age Conne ted to the portion P o7 the p-njunction. S is
connected to the poton n through Load resistance R.
REVERSE BIAS (V) Otput is takan across the Load resistane R.
8 6 -2
D-n
CURRENT
REVERSE(A)
tLwwww
10
UOO00000000000
000000000

I7 the rewse bias voltoqe exceeds the breakelon TIME

vettage,the sevesse cwtnt through the p-n junction ill
abnptly I; this cwsnt exceds the rated value WORKING
f p-n jnc tion (specified by manufacture), the pn juncthon Duing posiive halt eyele oc Ac, suppase si
aill gt damaged. becomes posithe , sa becomes negative and the pn junchion
is forwanad biased. TRe reslstance ot pnjuncion becomes
Low The maximum forwd curent flows in the rut
and we gt output across - Load.
Duing negative haly yce oy Ac. S becomes
negatie and sa is pOsitive · The p-n junction is rererse
 VOLTAGE
INPUT
biased. It offers high resistane and hence there is
no flow of cuwtent amd thws no otput across Load.
Hence in the output, we have current correspon TIME

ing to one hals cycle ot the wave and the othe

haly is missing. That ds why the process Acalled VOLTAGEDue to
OUTPUT Due toi Due to Due toi
hat wave reciicahon D,

(2) FULL WAVE RECTIFIER - }TIME

For ful wave reeification , we have to se
two p-n junction iodes D and D. he circit is Hence the output signal voltage is wnidirechonal
shown in the given fig O0000000099000
+ having ripple Contents Ci-e. de. Components amd a-c.
D
Components o voltage). It Can be converted into dc
D
veltage by fitering through a filter circuit
OUTPUT FILTER
A single capacitor oj high vale of caautance
Conected across the output of recifier Can war es the
filter.
Dz
P2
D2 The Capaci tor ofers Low impeclane to a.c Component
(Xe c t ) md ofers infinite impedan ca to dc
Due to t, the ac. Component is bypamed or
wORKING - filteuc out. It produces a volBage drop across Load
Duting the positie haly cyce oc Ac the resistamee RL as a fiHesed o.C. output, which id almast
diode D1 is forwara biased amd the ióde D; (s reerse d.c. voltage. Sueh lter is wldely wsed un power suppiu.
biabed. The fonward curent flows thrugh diode D, in
the direction as shaon in fia Output voltage
Duing the negative haly eycle oc AL. the
iode D, Teverse biased and the dióde D, is foruad OUTPUT FILTERED
biased. The forward Cuwent flows ttrongh diode Da we INPUT
AC.
OF D.C.
RECTIFIER|C
observe that
durigin both
thvough R flous
the hall cycles ot A.C., Cusert
the sane drecthon B
OUTPUT
 SPEC[AL PURPOSE PN JUNCTION DIODE - The constomt output voltage is taken across a load
reistance RL Connected in PatalW with zane iode.
Some
duius which ase basicaly pn junction R
diods ae dweloped fo differert applications.
() zENER DIODE -
Tt s oligned specially do opeote in rewerse FLUCTUATING CONSTANT
breakdoon voltage region ContinuDUsly with out being D.C. INPUT VOLTAGE OUTPUT VOLTAGE
GamAg ea. In zener diode both p-side amd n-siole of
P-n junction ae heavily doped.
Forward current
4 (mA)
WORKING -
When the input de volBage across zn
Reverse (V)
voltage
dloe increases beyond a cetam imit (ie. ze
Forward V) breakoloum voltage) the ewent through the circut
voltage ises sharply , causing a suficint increase In the
voltage drop across the dopping resistox R. As a reutt
Reverse
of t, the voltage across the zener dlode remaim Contt
current (HA) and hene the output voitage lowers back to nomal
Volue.
A zener iooe has aunique fature that the when the input de voltage across the Zne
voitaye drop across t iá independint of current flowing diode creases, the went hrough the circut goes
throuh t. down shaply causing suffcient dlacreae in the votage
dcrosS he dropping 'resis tor R. As a reswt o t, he
Zener dioda as a Veltage Reguator - Voltage across the zenw diode remains Constant and
Zener diode used i tthe constant hence the output votage is raused to normal.
voltage pewer supply ts working basedl on the Henu the output voltage remairs Constart
fact that in reverse breakoloon region, a very Small
Chamge in voltage acyoss the zeneY diode Produes a
very voltage
the
Lange change n current through the cincuit but
acTOSS the zener diode remains Constant.
The zene diode is joimed in reverse bËas to
the flucuating dc input voltage through a rsistonee R
ot Sitable vaue.
(i) PHOTO DIODE Uses ot Photodiods -
photodicde is an optoelectronie device
in whçch cuent caiers (electons and holes) are () In photodetection for optical simals.
generated by photors througn photo excitation (i) In demodulation for ophieal sigmals .
In photodiode a transparent window id made (iii) In Switching the ight on and off
to alow te light of Auitable trequency to fall on
t It Às opeated whden reverse bias. The Conducthity (iv) In reading ot Computers, punched cards and tapes.
of p-n junction photoiocle incveases wi th the increesé
in indensity of ight falling mt. (iii) LiGHT EMITTING DIODE ( LED)
LIGHT 4MA LED J a photo eleetronic dewica whieh Comverts
REVERSE VOLTAGE
’volt
lectical enegy into ight ene
LIGHT
DARK CURRENT
REVERSE
It id a harily dopel p-n junction diode wkich
p-side n-side
emits spontanous vadiation (lit) under fonuard bjas.
12

Workingi when a ght ot enngy, greats

for biddenblokeI T on than
a
chv > Eg) is incioant additional
Teverse p-n juncton photodiodey an
electron hole paçrs ahe created in the cepletion layer:
These chasge casiers flow across the junetion and In an LED the upper layer of p-type semicond
generate reverse cument across the juncton. uctor is depesitel by ditfusin on n- tpe dayer of
semiconuctor. The metallised Contacts are Provae for
It s fomd that the rwerse satwation Curent pplying the fonwara bBas voltage to the p-n Jjunchon
through the photodiode vonies almost inearly with the liode fom batery a resistane (R) which
Aight intensity Contros the bghtnes ot igat emitted.
whun the photodiode is revrse bjased , then
a certain Curent exists in the circuit even when no WORKING
lightis incident on the p-n juntion ot photodiode. when, p-n junction u forwoatcd biased, the
TWis cwent s called dark cwot movement ot majoity change Costiers take plae amss
 +he junction. The eleetro move from n-sjole to (iv) SoLAR CELL
P-siole through the junetion and holes move trom p Ar Sola cel Convets sola enwg ino
Siole to n-side thoygh the junction. As a rest eleetrical ngy It s also a p-n-junehon iode,
of t , the Con centration of minoity caries ncrases
rapidiy at the junction bounadlary. LIGHT METAL FINGER
ELECTRODES
These mhnority cahies recombine with mgjority GLASS
Cariers nes the junchon. On ecombnation o electon
and hole the enengY glven out in the form of heat
and ight. In p-n juneHon iods made of mateials P
Voc
ike gaium arsenide ( GaAs), gallium phosphide (sap)
and gallium -ahsenide- phosphide (Gahs P) a greate per N
Isc
Cantag b eneagy released dwing the recom binaton is
in the form of visible ight. METAL CONTACT

Aa vantuges of LED over Bulb i A solar cel Cos'sts of a silicon or qallim

(1) LED has Less pouwe and low operahonal voltage ahsenide p-n juncton ode packed in a can uth
(2) LED has fast action and egires no wakm up t'me. lwindow on top. The upper layer is of p-type sem
(>) LED A cheap am easy to hane lonductor. It is very thin so that the inicut igt
C4) LED Can be used for yauey ot wse eg in bunglar pho tors may easily reach the p-n junehon.
adarn system, in optical Com municahion, in igital watoes On the top face of p-ayer, the metal tinger
etc.
ele ctroes ahe pupared in rdr to have enagh
between the fingers for the iaht to reach the spacing
p-n
Explain giving wy the semiconductor Juneton through P-layer.
wsed for fabhication of visile lgt LEDs must
have a band gap o at east (nearly) 8ew. Working -
Sol
semiconductors with band gap (E ) lose to 8 ew
when photons o} ight (of enunY hv E)
at the junchion , electron
-hole pairs aie
he pha7erred to make LEDs becase the emitted in the deple tiorn laye. The electrons and hales proct
ight falls in the visible regDn o EM Wave spectrum. move in opposite 'rection de tojunction feld.
The other reason to selct these materias ane The photo generated eectrons move fowasds n-side
high ophcal absorption and low cost. amd holes move towahas p-side os p-n junction. They
wil be Calected at the two sides of the junetion, ving
rise to a photo voltage betoen the top and botom
 metal ellchrode. when an external bad is Connected quoss
metal electrodes q photo current flous. NOTE According to CBSE board Class 12 Physics
The V-I characteoisics of a solas cell lyin in [Link]: 2019 -20.
fonth qundlyartt of the Coordinate axes. t is so because these topics are removed from this unit
Sokan celu dos not draw cuwt but supblies to the Junctiontransistor, transistor action, characteristics of atransistor
Load. In graph point Arepresents open cireuit voltage and transistor as an amplifier (common emitter configuration),
basic idea of analog and digital signals, Logic gates
md point´B sepresents short circuit. (OR, AND, NOT, NAND and NOR). Not in
Syllabus
Uses -
JUNCTION TRANSIST OR -
(1) Sola cells he used for chaging storage batterie
in day dime,hich Can supply the pawer wing night A junchon transistor is obtalned by grouing
a thin dayer os one type semiconuctor (P or n)
(i) Solan clls ae wsed in satellites to operate the varies in betwean two thick lauyers of othe ype semi.
elect rical instrument kept inaice the satellite. Conductoy ( n oY P). Thus, a junctiom transistor s
in) Solar cels ae wsed in Calclators, watches etc. a semiconcuctoy duice having two juncthons md
three terminals.
(iN) Solar cels ate used to powey traffic signals. The thre lauerA o junchon tronsstoYs ae
i) Emitter (E)
Qstate the rasorn , wuy Ga As is most Cormmonly used It ii a heaviy doped hick ayeY
of transstoy.
in making solaa clls.
Sel. (i) Gase (B)- rt is Ligthy doped thin Ayer af
The enegy oj the maximum intensity ot the tansisto, wieh s in midle.
solar Yaoiation is nealy Is ev. In ordeh to have
photo excitation the enegy ot Yadiaton (hv) must (ili )Collector C)- It is a modenately doped thick
be greater than engy band gap (Eg). layer oc transstor.
Theefore the semiconductor with energy band Size ’ C> E >
abot 1s w or Lower amd oith highr ahsovption
toeficient is ikely to give beter sola Convenson Doping --’
effaency The enegy band gop for si is 14 ew and The function o emi ter is to emit the maionty
for Ga As t is about 1s3 ev
change caieís:omd he functhon oc Collecte> i t
Collet the majonity Caers. Bse pronda the prOper
intaction between the emitter and collector.
 WORKING OF JUNCTÊON TRANSIS TOR As one hole reaches the Collec tor, it is neuta
(1) PNP Tranistor llsed by the flouw of one elechon from +the nugatie
teminal the battery Vec to Collectoy though connecHng
PNP transistoy iA obtaine by
A wise. At the same time a Covalent bend i broken In
aTning thin layer o n-type semiconducjoy in the emitter, the elechon goes to the posite teminal ot
behwean two relaively thick layers f [Link] semiavducbr the battery VeE through Connecting wire and hole prodced
beg1ns to move towaras base.
T6 shudy the working oc P-Np tramnsistor the Then one
espelimented askagemert shoon in fi: electron temi nal
battery VEE to pos hve ftows, Tomot teTy Vce. Luhen teuminal
pnp the hole Coming from emi tter Combines with the electron
in base, the defiaency o electron in base is Compensated
byVeE theto flow of electron fsom negative tekminal ot battery
B the base through Connecting wire.
E B
le Thus the cwvent im PNP tranistor ü Caied by
lb =(le-le) holes and at the same time thir concantration is mant
ained. But in the extesmal circuit the cuent i u
to flow of eletrons.
HH H Here we Can see that Ie = I, + Ie
VEE Vcc VEE Vcc

The emitey- base junchon is furaano biased and (2) NPN-TRANSISTOR

Coliec toY -base juncion is rewerse biased amd this A NPN juncton tansistor ç
YYangeent is Known as Common base Configwation. obtained by,
in betwen togrouing,.
a thin layer of p-type seniconduc tor
relatively thick layers o7 n-type semij -
Holes which re majority Casiers in emitter ae Conductor.
repelled tonds base by posive poterdial on emiter
to batery VEE , resuting in emiter csrnt Ie . EMITTER
JUNCTION
COLLECTOR
JUNCTION
1Re base being thin and ightly doped has npn

Low nurnbu denai ty of ekctrons. ohen holes entes the

bose egon, hn ondy a few holes (say s% ) et reco
mbine with eleetrons, resuting in base Cwount Ib " Here E
Is = 5% I = 0-0s I The remaining 9s% holes pas lp =(le-lc)
OveY to the collector om account ot high negative pototia
ue to batery Vec ,resuting în Collector cuert Ie.
I - 9S Le 0:9SI VEE Vcc VEE le lc Vcc
 In this case also the emitey base junchon is forward COMMON EMITTER TRANSISTER CHARACT ERISTICS
biased and the Colle ctor base junction The
biased.
Tevese
esistics of
expeimental setup to btdy the chahact
a ransistor, when emitter s Kapt as a
Electrons which ae majoity charge caiess Common terminal is shown in Hg:
in emiter ahe replled towards base by negative pen
tial ot VEE on emitter, resuting emiter cwrt Ie . Base is the input terminad and collector i
The base being thin and Lighthy dopat has low number the output terminal. Here aso Ie = Ib +Ie.
mA
density o hoks. when electrons enter the base region
then ony a few holes ( Say s.) get neutralised by
the holesYesting in base cuent IL E5%I= 0-05I). npn
The emaining 9s electyons pas oveY do he Collector,
On account ot high posiive potenial of Collectox oe. R,

to battery Vec, resuthing in collector c Wwent Ic (= 957. 1e

o95 Ie) VeE
|Vaa
As one electron Yeaches the collector, it flous
I,
to the positive terminal o battery Vee through Conn
ecting wire. At the same time, one electron Houss Tnput chatacteinistics -
Ves
from a v e tminal o7 Vec to positive teminal ot
and one electron flows trom negate teminal It represents the valatíon of the bae crent
of VEE to emitter. Ib with base emitter voltage Vae, Keeping Vee ixed.
when Hhe electron Coming trom emiter Com As ShoOn in fig the current is bmau as Long
bines uith the hole in base, the deficiency of hole VBe is less than the barrier voltage. when Vee il
greter than the baiex voltage the cwve ok
in base is compensated by the brteak age o Covalent simila to that of a torwand biased ode.
band Hhee. Th eectom so reached flow to the
potitive teaminal of batlery Vee thurough comecting At a fixed point on the chahacteistics, twe. Can
wITe. find input dynamic resistana of transisto .
n-p-n transjstoy the
Cathsied insio the trOns'stor as well as in esternad Lnput dynamic resistanee - Tt is dufined as the
circuit by th eectrons. Tatio ot chenge in base- emitter voltage (a Vae) to the
Thus hee we Can see that Ie = I t Ie resuting change in the base cuthent (AI) at fined
Collector emitter voltage ( Vee).
Ri /AVas Ri ronges from
few hundres to
|AIb Veg= Constant a few thound onm.
 Le (mA) TRANSIS TOR AS A SWITCH -
Vce2V VcE =4V
1000
900 10.0 Switch is a olwice , used to 'on' or 'off the
800
200A Cwbent in the circid.
8.0
700 150A
600
500
6.0-
i=1004A
Tö uncestand the operation of th tranaistor
400 4.0
as a bwitch, we use npn transstor with Common
3004
200 2.0
4I50uA emitter Configuration, as Ahoon in fig:
100
o.20 0.40 0.80 0.80 1.00 1.20 Va[ (V) 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 VcE (V) VOLTAGE
Vo
Rg Ig OUTPUT
Input Characenstics Otpt cheracteristies )npn
AGE
INPUT
Output Characerisics - E
VCE
t represerts the vaation ot collectoY VO
iVBE
Cwtent (Ic) with Collector emitter votage VeE ,keeping VBB Vcc
bose Cuent (Ib) fxed.
From the cuwe, we find that for a
valu of VeE , Ic is lage foy large Vale ofgivenIb.
This happens . because the transistor is in saduraion Using Kirchhotf's voltage La- for the input circit
State and not in acive Stte. FUthr as we have -Vee+ IzRg t Vee
the col lectoy emitter junetion is reverse biased (VeE >Veg) Long OY
we get Ie which ia anost independent o Vee. The For Si transistoY 0-6V to o7 V.
Volu o Ic howevex Controll ed by Lb" For the output chaacteristics , we have
Output Dynamie reslstan (R) -Vec + Te Re tVeE
VCE = Vec-I¢Re
0
Tt il datined as the ratio of change in
coiktOY- emitteY Voltage (AYcE) to the chnge in We can asume Vaa as the d.C input voltage Vi
Collector CusentAI<), when base cusent I s kapt and Vee s the output voltage Vo. Thn
Corstart.
from eq. ) Vi Is Re +VaE
Ro= I I, : Constant
from eq @ Ve =Vee - TeRe
(i) Tn Case oz si transistor as Vi<o6V, there i
Ro yanges fromn 5o do oo Ks no collectar Cwtent (Ie =o). Now the tansstor will
be in cut of stote . Alse Vo = Vee .
 Votcut off TRANSISTOR As COMMON EMITTER AMPLIFTER
Region Active
An amplifier is a dwice which ii wsed for
Region increasingoY he amplitude ot vaiaton ot altenating
voltage Cuent or Poer.
Saturation Region The dreit o a Common emi tter amplifier
s shouwn in fig The input cireuit is toTwGd
biased and the output drcuit i revense biaseol
Hee the resistane o input drcuit is low and that
0-6 V 1-0 V of output eircuit high.
(ii) When Vi >o6 U but neary less than IV, the
wlI be Some colletoy CuhertLe " From eq
deah that as Ic increases , the valu oc output Votage OUTPUT
Vo decreases. with the increase npn
o Vi beyond O-6V, Ie
increases amost Linealy and so Vo olecreases ineanly
E
till V becomes ney 1y. In thiu sitation the
transistor is in active state.
INPUT T Vcc
(ii ) when Vi zI , the vaiation ot Vi and Vo is A.C. SIGNAL OUTPUT
non ineas, because with the increase in V, Vo is A.C. SIGNAL

found to decrease towards zexo but never become

zero In this case th Colle ctor Cwsent I becones
maximum and the transistor is in Satuhation state. when no ac. sigmal voltage is applied to the
input circuit but emi tter base cireuit is cased, then
From the above we note that as Long Qs V
is Low (Vi < O-c v), Vo high (= Vee) and Ie is
nedy equal to zero The transistor is not woking Du to Collector cwsent Ie , Voltage drop qcross Re
and'a ald to be in switched off state. Ie Re. Ic Ve ds Collecetor voltage (potental dif.
betwen Collector Gnd emitter) then
It Vi is high lvi> Lv), Vo is low and is VcE = Ve t I Re Ve VeE - IcRc
neanly equa to zero. In this Cose Ic d maxjmum.
The transi&tor i nous fully cornducting amd is said
to be in switched n state:
when the input sinal voltage is fed to the
emitter base circt, wiI| chãnge the emiter voltage
and hence to the emi ter current, which inturn wi!?
change the collector Current.
 De o t te colle tor vo Itage Vc will Vary VARIOUS. GAINS OF COMMON EMITTER AMPLIFIER
in accordance with relation Ve = Vee -Ie Re
This vaiaion in Collector voltage appear as amplified (1) Cwrent Gain/ Cunent Anpli fication Faetor
output. D.c. Current Gain- (e)
Phase rektionship betwun input and oupud vottagek Tt is lfined as the ratio of the Collector
Cument (Ie) to the base Curent (Ib).
(0) Dring Pasitive hat cycle ot input qc. voltage,
spponts
circui t.
the forwad biosing of the emitter- base
Due to t Ie increases and Consequenty Ie-Ie Ie Ib+ Ie
Ic imcreses. As a Tesut of tt Ve decreases.
A.c. CuYrent Gon ( A)
TRus osing positve halt cycle of inpud A-c.
voltase the outpt ignal vetae vaËes throqh It i oletined as the ratio ot change in Clkctor
ragotive haty cycle. Cutent (Are) to the change in base cunent (AI) at
Constont collector voltage .
(0) Duing rugative hat cycle ot input art.,t opposes Pac. For a tansistor B dis
the fowand biasing of emitter base circui t, lu to betwen 15 to S0 .
t IE ccreases qnd we Ie decreases As a resut
o t Ve increaseb, i-e. the colle ctor becomes more paitive (2) Trans conduetmce (g)
Thus dwing ngathve halt cycle o input Ac It is deined as the ratio of change in
signal vo itage, t output Aignal vo tage varies through Colle ctoY curent (AIc) to the change in base emitter
poaitive half cycle. Voltage (AW). Its unit is .
Hence thu input signad voltage and oudput sipnal voHage AV
ahe in oþposite phase (ie. tEo' out at phase) in commo'n
emitteramplijler chreuit. Ri
Ri AYI

(3) Ac. Voltage Gain (Av)

as the Tatio of the change in
outpud voltage (ave) to the change in nput voHage (4M)
Ay = AVe =Ale XRo
AV
4) A.c Power Gain CASE The AC Cuer gain of a transistor is no. What
It s dletined as the tio of the change in
2006
J the Change in the Collector cuent in the tan
sibtor whose base cwtnt hanges by L00 A?
outpt power to the charge in input power.
Sol: Given that B l20
A.C. Power Gan = We Know thatt

x resistance gain 120

= Ae. X (Ae KTesjstance gain) AIe 12. mA

A.C. Power Gain = Bat. X Av

(5) Relaionship betwen The input Aesibtance of a ce-tansistor id looo 2. On

2006
changing ts base cubent by 10 MA, the colle ctor
and Cuhcert increases by 2 mA. I; a load resistane of
5 k s used in the circit, calewlate
(a)The cwent gain (b) Voltage gain of ampifer
whene p is current gain in ce Configuntion p* Sol: aiven that Ri = L000 AIb [o A
and a is cwsent goin in cB Canfigurein. AIe 2 m
A RL Ro = Skn =5000 N
where (a) AIe
AIb

(b) Voltage 8ain Av = Px Ro

Ri
Av = 200X SO0D
l000
l000
TRANSISTOR As AN 03CILLLAT OR cwbent and hune an increase in he collectoY

A Simple L-C crcwit Can be used to produce

cusent Duu to t, more in creasing magnetie flux
is inke wth L and hane with L. As a result
electical oscillatons of duired trequeny The radio of this more emf. is induced in L chargng the
wave which are used as caier waves ln radio
Communitation au proouced by these drcits. upper plate of capaitor with more pasitive harge
md hence proriding more suPport to the forwand
Cireuit oliagram o} a transstor as an oscillator biasi ng of emi ter-base ccreuit, which resuts further
Às bhown in fig Hers Lrc circuit is connected wth Încrease in the emitter cwsent and hence in the
emitter ase cÉrcut of transistor which ds forwar collector cwten The Process conines the
biased with batery as: Collector cient becomes maximum or atrted.
The collector emi tter circuit is rwerse biaset Now the mutual induction stops playing ts
with battery Vcc. A coil Ly is insuted in collettor pant The Capaitor.c gts dischanged throygh induetane
emiter circut, which is Coupled with L. L. As a result of it, the suppovt to the forwand
biasing of ermitter- base circut i wthdrawn , therby
the emiter current decreases and hence collector Cunert
also decreases. Due to decresing
is inked with Ly amd hene
t a
itth L.
magnetie ur

npn Vcc De to mutual induetion an emf is induced

in L which will chage the dower plate ot Capaei tor
Output L2
E C with pasitive change amd upþer plate of capaci tor
with negatre chage , conseguently thee will be
opposition to the forcaral bjasing of emi ter base circwt.
VBB
K
This resutts in fwther dcrease in emitex cuwent ml
hence in collectoY cwant This process con tinus till
Workang' It we close the key K, the colle etor attains the collector cwent becomes Zero:
positive potential dlue to ohich thene will be a weak Now again mutual inducion stops playing ts
Collectoy Cwsent which rising with time
will stat pat. The capautor gets ischanged through inductnce
due to inaluctane Ly: As o result ot i,an increasing L. As a Tesult of it, the opposi tion to the forwand
magnuic flux is Linked with Ly Gnd hene wtth L. Du biasing of emitter bae cireit is withdvawn , thereby
to mutual induct ion, an e.m.f. in induced in L which the emitter cuent increases and hence collector curent
will change the upper plate of capacitor witth positive also increase and the process repeats. Thus the collector
change, Conseguenty thee wi|| be support to the forwd cUsent scillates beween a maxjmum amd zerd value
basing f emitter base crcuit.
Tis Tesutts in an increae In the eitter
 We Know that in Common emitter cult, Disacvantages of Semicanalucor deics
a sgmal voltage applied to the emi tey bax cincit
suffers a phase change cf 180' in the collector emm ( ) semiconduetor cwics oee more seitve to changu
tter circut. By CouplingLy with L, we baing about of temperatwu sheas the vaccum tube ae lis
a father phase change of 180. Thus the eneigy which bensitive
iA fed to the LC ircit is in proper phase at (2) It iticut to produe semiconductor dias
proper imings and hence we gt undamped ascillafons with exactly idntical charactuistics.
in LC cìrcit of frequency (3) TRe nise level is highe in semiconuctor dues
as Cormpate to [Link] tubes.
(4) Semi conductos nes conot handle as much pouse
vaccum tubes.
Ihenefore we get the cabder waves from the oscllator.
Note In this oscillator, the enugy is bing suppliec
by the battery Vec to the Lc crcut at priper ime NOTE-ACCording to CBSE board Class 12 Physics
and in prope r phase, ther fore the battery gts New Syllabus: 2019 -20
Consumed in oscillator. t means in OAllaor D.C these topics are removed from this unit -
is Cornverted into A.C. Junction transistor, transistoraction, characteristics of atransistor
and-transistor as an amplifier (common emitter configuration),
basi idea of analog and digitalsignais, Logis gates
(OR;AND, NOT, NAND and NOR):
Advantages oj Semi Cenducto devieee Not in
Syllabus

(1) Semiconductor devies are much bmalles in size and

weight as Compakud to vaccum tubeb.
(2) semjconductoy devices stt operating instonty This Aave
a lot of electrical Power.
(3) Semiconductor devies dos not get heated , cwhile operating
So thot no required.
(4) The semiconuc
colina Can withstand tough handling
as Compated to the vaccum tubes.
(s) Semiconductor dwies have much Longeu ife as Comp
aed to the it os vaccum tubes.
(6) Semi Conductor uis ae chuaper han accum tube
dwicus.
(7) Semicorauctor dvices ae dow POweY derices.
 LOGIC GATE - (3) NOT Gate
A digital reuit which either allows The NOT gate ia a duice uohich invents the inpt.
a
signal to pass through oY stops t,is calltod e It input is 1 hen the output i not 1 but is zero
gate: Such gate allows the signal to pas through Gnd ohun input is o then output is not zero bu is
only when some logical condlitions ae sata fied. 1. The NOT gate is one input and one output deuice .
Hence they ae calld dogic gates.
Basic Logic gates ven below :
(L) OR Gate NOT gate
1

to
OR
gate s a duiu cohich combines A sith B
give Y as the relult.
OR gate has tuo o more inputs amd one output.
The ba Symbol(-) is referred to as NOT in
Boolean lgebra. The Boolean expression A= y indicates
1
Y equals NoTA
OR gae
1
Cambination of Gates
Y = A+ B
(1) NAND Gote
In Booie an algebra, dddihon symbol (+) ds refered we connect that owtput y' of AND gaBe to the
to as oR. The Boolean expression A+B =y indicates input of a NoT gate , then the te So obtainel is Called
that equals AOR e. NAND
gote.
(2 ) AND Gae -
The AND gate i a derice that Cornbines A with
6 te ve result Y. The AND gate has two or mare
inputs and one autput. A|B
Multiplication sign (X or -) refered to as AND 1
in Booiean algebra . The Boolean expresion A- Y, 1 1
indicates y equals A AND . 1 1
1 1 1

AND ge
The Boolean expresion, the NAND gate is aiven
AB
as y = A: and iu being read as A AND B negated.
(2) NOR Gate
INTEGRAT ED CIRcUIT
I} Y' of cn OR gate
we Connect the outpt
to the input of the NOT ote thn the gate So Integrated circit (Ic) is that ireuit in
Obtaind is calld he NOR gte. whch the arcit Conmponents such as resistors, dodes,
Capacitors and transistors etc. ae part ot a Smal
semiconductor chip
IC Consists os number of ciraut Componurts
md their inter Connections in singe small pakage to
BY' Y petorm a complte electDnic function.

10
1
1 1

The followng processes ae involved in the fabicahon

In ABoolean expression the nOR gateA isoR expresed of indegated ircts
as y= +B omd is being read as B negated.
(1) Epitazial Growth
BooLEAN ALGEBRA This prOCess i used do have a
Jayer of n-bype oT
(1) A+1 = 1 and A+O A P-ype on silican chip as amd when Teqired.
(2) A:1 A and A.o (2) Oxicoion -
(3) A+ A = 1 md A. This prDcess is sed to have a
sio on silicon chip which s abl
layer ot insulating
to sepakate one
(4) A + B and region of silicon chip from the other.
(s) A = A (3) Photb Lithograp -
(G) A+ A = A and AA = A By this process the different regions of silicom chip
e selcted photgphicaly whee the differend Campo
nents to be used in intgroted ircuts Can be instaikd
(4) Ditusi en oy diferent impuities -
TRis process ds use to obtain difunt dvice
shructue on silícon chip.
 (s) Metalisation Q wat will be the ales of inputs A and B for
CASE the Booleom expression A+e)-(A-4) =1?
This preess involves the eposition of metad 2001

films which may interconnec ditferot Componets Sol: Gfven Hhat

installud on chp to obtain the required ciruit (A+ a)- (A:) = 1
LHS, (A+)-A-B)
Adantagea oy ICs I} A-o , B-o then (0+o)-(o- o) = (o)-j = 1
highly reliable due to sser numbek Hence the value ot A=B 2o.
of onection.
(2) They neqire vey small plae The output of an oR gate is connected to botth
(3) They have luser oeight due to ery small circits. E the inputs o a NAND gate Draw the logic cneuit
2007
(4) 7hair totaJ Cost is low. of this Combinaion ot aates and wnte truth table.
(S) They requre dow pooer to oprte Sol.
ircit
(6) They have greater abiity to operate at extreme Truth Table
valuis h tumpeuatwes. y= A+G A

o- 1

The follouing figue shows the Input wavefomms

2006
A, e andl the output wavefoTm y ot a gate. Idehify
the gate , waite ts truth table amd raw ts
logie Symbol.

III
!!
o 1 2 3 4 s6 7
 Sol. 2009 [Q >0
(6) (a) So
that
qates
these of The the
From
output
A two symbal
Logie gate
ond
the
Combinations
NoR ven is is
given
new
NA
crcuts
gates.
ND
Output
ony
A gate.
WAite
ae hn(y)
A
a Tiuth wavefom
truth
combination both
B

table Table,
inputs

t
fo o
id
each NAND e
1,dear

So: 2011 Sol. 2003cASE [

ates.
AND basie
NAND th
ly A in
Also putsDraw
Truth
Table Given
A A
gates A
2ate B equi ahe
- tdentity
Logic t A,B the
( valntNAND
ORis output
Called
, cireut fothre
AND gate Aate the
B
s univehsal
and for
Called gate: wave
behavs dogeform
NOT) the
univesal cireit
shon
gate ike t
Can en x,
because an
be using
rcut. gate AND
made the
? gate.
all Tdetify beloo.
using three gven