Rashtreeya Sikshana Samithi Trust's

Rashtreeya Vidyalaya Institute of Technology and Management (RVITM),

Bengaluru

INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING (BESCKC104)

SEMESTER-I/II

Module-IV

EMBEDDED SYSTEMS, SENSORS AND INTERFACING,

ACTUATORS

Prepared by

Dr. Vikash Kumar,

Assistant Professor
Dept. of E&C Engg
RVITM

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

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 Module 4 RBT
Levels
L1, L2
Embedded Systems – Definition, Embedded systems vs
general computing systems, Classification of Embedded
Systems, Major application areas of Embedded Systems,
Elements of an Embedded System, Core of the Embedded
System, Microprocessor vsMicrocontroller, RISC vs CISC.

Sensors and Interfacing – Instrumentation and control

systems, Transducers, Sensors.

Actuators, LED, 7-Segment LED Display.

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 4. EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

4.1 WHAT IS AN EMBEDDED SYSTEM?

An embedded system is an electronic/electro-mechanical system designed to perform a specific

function and is a combination of both hardware and firmware (software).

Every embedded system is unique, and the hardware as well as the firmware is highly
specialised to the application domain. Embedded systems are becoming an inevitable part of
any product or equipment in all fields including household appliances, telecommunications,
medical equipment, industrial control, consumer products, etc.

4.2 EMBEDDED SYSTEMS vs. GENERAL COMPUTING SYSTEMS

The computing revolution began with the general purpose computing requirements. Later it
was realized that the general computing requirements are not sufficient for the embedded
computing requirements. The embedded computing requirements demand ‘something special’
in terms of response to stimuli, meeting the computational deadlines, power efficiency, limited
memory availability, etc. Let’s take the case of your personal computer, which may be either
a desktop PC or a laptop PC or a palmtop PC. It is built around a general purpose processor
like an Intel® Centrino or a Duo/Quad core or an AMD Turion™ processor and is designed to
support a set of multiple peripherals like multiple USB 2.0 ports, Wi-Fi, ethernet, video port,
IEEE1394, SD/CF/MMC external interfaces, Bluetooth, etc and with additional interfaces like
a CD read/writer, on-board Hard Disk Drive (HDD), gigabytes of RAM, etc. You can load any
supported operating system (like Windows® XP/Vista/7, or Red Hat Linux/Ubuntu Linux,
UNIX etc) into the hard disk of your PC. You can write or purchase a multitude of applications
for your PC and can use your PC for running a large number of applications (like printing your
dear’s photo using a printer device connected to the PC and printer software, creating a
document using Microsoft® Office Word tool, etc.) Now let us think about the DVD player
you use for playing DVD movies. Is it possible for you to change the operating system of your
DVD? Is it possible for you to write an application and download it to your DVD player for
executing? Is it possible for you to add a printer soft¬ ware to your DVD player and connect a
printer to your DVD player to take a printout? Is it possible for you to change the functioning
of your DVD player to a television by changing the embedded software? The answers to all
these questions are ‘NO’. Can you see any general purpose interface like Bluetooth or Wi-Fi

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on your DVD player? Of course ‘NO’. The only interface you can find out on the DVD player
is the interface for connecting the DVD player with the display screen and one for controlling
the DVD player through a remote (May be an IR or any other specific wireless interface).
Indeed your DVD player is an embedded system designed specifically for decoding digital
video and generating a video signal as output to your TV or any other display screen which
supports the display interface supported by the DVD Player. Let us summarise our findings
from the comparison of embedded system and general purpose computing system with the help
of a Table 4.1.
Table 4.1 Comparison of embedded system and general purpose computing system

However, the demarcation between desktop systems and embedded systems in certain areas of
embedded applications are shrinking in certain contexts. Smart phones are typical examples of
this. Nowadays smart phones are available with RAM up to 256 MB and users can extend most
of their desktop applications to the smart phones and it waives the clause “Embedded systems
are designed for a specific application” from the characteristics of the embedded system for the
mobile embedded device category. However, smart phones come with a built-in operating
system and it is not modifiable by the end user. It makes the clause: “The firmware of the
embedded system is unalterable by the end user”, still a valid clause in the mobile embedded
device category.

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4.3 CLASSIFICATION OF EMBEDDED SYSTEMS
It is possible to have a multitude of classifications for embedded systems, based on different
criteria. Some of the criteria used in the classification of embedded systems are:

1. Based on generation
2. Complexity and performance requirements
3. Based on deterministic behaviour
4. Based on triggering.

The classification based on deterministic system behaviour is applicable for ‘Real Time’
systems. The application/task execution behaviour for an embedded system can be either
deterministic or non- deterministic. Based on the execution behaviour, Real Time embedded
systems are classified into Hard and Soft. We will discuss about hard and soft real time systems
in a later chapter. Embedded Systems which are ‘Reactive’ in nature (Like process control
systems in industrial control applications) can be classified based on the trigger. Reactive
systems can be either event triggered or time triggered.

4.3.1 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON GENERATION

This classification is based on the order in which the embedded processing systems evolved
from the first version to where they are today. As per this criterion, embedded systems can be
classified into:

First Generation The early embedded systems were built around 8bit microprocessors like
8085 and Z80, and 4bit microcontrollers. Simple in hardware circuits with firmware developed
in Assembly code. Digital telephone keypads, stepper motor control units etc. are examples of
this.

Second Generation These are embedded systems built around 16bit microprocessors and 8
or 16 bit microcontrollers, following the first generation embedded systems. The instruction
set for the second generation processors/controllers were much more complex and powerful
than the first generation processors/controllers. Some of the second generation embedded
systems contained embedded operating systems for their operation. DataAcquisition Systems,
SCADA systems, etc. are examples of second generation embedded systems.

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Third Generation With advances in processor technology, embedded system developers started
making use of powerful 32bit processors and 16bit microcontrollers for theirdesign. A new
concept of application and domain specific processors/controllers like Digital SignalProcessors
(DSP) and Application Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs) came into the picture. The
instruction set of processors became more complex and powerful and the concept of instruction
pipelining also evolved. The processor market was flooded with different typesof processors
from different vendors. Processors like Intel Pentium, Motorola 68K, etc. gained attention in
high performance embedded requirements. Dedicated embedded real time and general purpose
operating systems entered into the embedded market. Embedded systems spread its ground to
areas like robotics, media, industrial process control, networking, etc.

Fourth Generation The advent of System on Chips (SoC), reconfigurable processors and
multicore processors are bringing high performance, tight integration and miniaturisation into
the embedded device market. The SoC technique implements a total system on a chip by
integrating different functionalities with a processor core on an integrated circuit. We will discuss
about SoCs in a later chapter. The fourth generation embedded systemsare making use ofhigh
performance real time embedded operating systems for their functioning. Smart phone devices,
mobile internet devices (MIDs), etc. are examples of fourth generation embedded systems.

4.3.2 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON COMPLEXITY AND PERFORMANCE

This classification is based on the complexity and system performance requirements. According
to this classification, embedded systems can be grouped into:

Small-Scale Embedded Systems: Embedded systems which are simple in applicationneeds and
where the performance requirements are not time critical fall under this category. An electronic
toy is a typical example of a small-scale embedded system. Small-scale embedded systems are
usually built around low performance and low cost 8 or 16 bit microprocessors/microcontrollers.
A small-scale embedded system may or may not contain an operating system for its functioning.

Medium-Scale Embedded Systems Embedded systems which are slightly complex in hardware
and firmware (software) requirements fall under this category. Medium-scale embedded systems
are usually built around medium performance, low cost 16 or 32 bit microprocessors/
microcontrollers or digital signal processors. They usually contain an

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embedded operating system (either general, purpose or real time operating system) for
functioning.

Large-Scale Embedded Systems/Complex Systems Embedded systems which involve highly

complex hardware and firmware requirements fall under this category. They are employed in
mission critical applications demanding high performance. Such systems are commonly built
around high performance 32 or 64 bit RISC processors/controllers or Reconfigurable System
on Chip (RSoC) or multi-core processors and programmable logic devices. They may contain
multiple processors/controllers and co-units/hardware accelerators for offloading the processing
requirements from the main processor of the system. Decoding/encoding of media,cryptographic
function implementation, etc. are examples for processing requirements which can be
implemented using a co-processor/hard- ware accelerator. Complex embedded systems usually
contain a-high-performance Real-Time Operating System (RTOS) for task scheduling,
prioritization and management.

4.4 MAJOR APPLICATION AREAS OF EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

We are living in a world where embedded systems play a vital role in our day-to-day life, starting
from home to the computer industry, where most of .the people find their job for a livelihood.
Embedded technology has acquired a new dimension from its first generation model, the Apollo
guidance computer, to the latest radio navigation system combined with in- car entertainment
technology and the microprocessor based “Smart” running shoes launched byAdidas in April
2005. The application areas and the products in the embedded domain are countless. A few of
the important domains and products are listed below:

1. Consumer electronics: Camcorders, cameras, etc.

2. Household appliances: Television, DVD players, washing machine, fridge, microwave oven,
etc.
3. Home automation and security systems: Air conditioners, sprinklers, intruder detection
alarms, closed circuit television cameras, fire alarms, etc.

4. Automotive industry: Anti-lock breaking systems (ABS), engine control, ignition systems,
automatic navigation systems, etc.
5. Telecom: Cellular telephones, telephone switches, handset multimedia applications, etc.
6. Computer peripherals: Printers, scanners, fax machines, etc.
7. Computer networking systems: Network routers, switches, hubs, firewalls, etc.
8. Healthcare: Different kinds of scanners, EEG, ECG machines etc.

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 9. Measurement & Instrumentation: Digital multi meters, digital CROs, logic analyzers PLC
systems, etc.
10. Banking & Retail: Automatic teller machines (ATM) and currency counters, point of sales
(POS)
11. Card Readers: Barcode, smart card readers, hand held devices, etc.

12. Wearable Devices: Health and fitness trackers, Smartphone screen extension for
notifications, etc.

13. Cloud Computing and Internet of Things (IoT).

4.5 ELEMENTS OF AN EMBEDDED SYSTEM

An embedded system is a combination of 3 things, Hardware Software Mechanical Components

and it is supposed to do one specific task only. A typical embedded system contains a single
chip controller which acts as the master brain of the system. Diagrammatically an embedded
system can be represented as follows: Embedded systems arebasically designed to regulate a
physical variable (such Microwave Oven) or to manipulatethe state of some devices by sending
some signals to the actuators or devices connected to the output port system (such as
temperature in Air Conditioner), in response to the input signal provided by the end users or
sensors which are connected to the input ports. Hence the embedded systems can be viewed as
a reactive system. The control is achieved by processing the information coming from the
sensors and user interfaces and controlling some actuators that regulate the physical variable.
Keyboards, push button, switches, etc. are Examples of common user interface input devices
and LEDs, LCDs, Piezoelectric buzzers, etc examples for common user interface output devices
for a typical embedded system. The requirement of type of user interface changes from
application to application based on domain. Someembedded systems do not require any manual
intervention for their operation. They automatically sense the input parameters from real world
through sensors which are connected at input port. The sensor information is passed to the
processor after signal conditioning and digitization. The core of the system performs some
predefined operations on input data with the help of embedded firmware in the system and sends
some actuating signals to the actuator connect connected to the output port of the system. The
memory of the system is responsible for holding the code (control algorithm and other important
configuration details). There are two types of memories are used in any embedded system. Fixed
memory (ROM) is used for storing code or program. The user cannot change the firmware in
this type of memory. The

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 most common types of memories used in embedded systems for control algorithm storage are
OTP, PROM, UVEPROM, EEPROM and FLASH. An embedded system without code (i.e. the
control algorithm) implemented memory has all the peripherals but is not capable of making
decisions depending on the situational as well as real world changes. Memory for implementing
the code may be present on the processor or may be implemented as a separate chip interfacing
the processor In a controller based embedded system, the controller may contain internal
memory for storing code such controllers are called Microcontrollers with on-chip ROM. eg.
Atmel AT89C51.

Figure 4.1 Elements of an embedded system.

4.6 CORE OF THE EMBEDDED SYSTEM

Embedded systems are domain and application specific and are built around a central core. The
core of the embedded system falls into any one of the following categories:

1. General Purpose and Domain Specific Processors

• Microprocessors
• Microcontrollers
• Digital Signal Processors
2. Application Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs)
3. Programmable Logic Devices (PLDs)
4. Commercial off-the-shelf Components (COTS)

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4.6.1 Microprocessor vs. Microcontroller

Table 4.2 Microprocessor vs. Microcontroller

Microprocessor Microcontroller
A silicon chip representing a central A microcontroller is a highly integrated chip
processing unit (CPU), which is capable of that contains a CPU, scratchpad RAM, special
performing arithmetic as well as logical and general purpose register arrays, on chip
operations according to a pre-defined set of ROM/ FLASH memory for program storage,
instructions timer and interrupt control units and dedicated
I/O ports
It is a dependent unit. It requires the It is a self-contained unit and it doesn't require
combination of other chips like timers, external interrupt controller, timer, UART,
program and data memory chips, interrupt etc. for its functioning
controllers, etc. for functioning
Most of the time, general purpose in design Mostly application-oriented or domain-
and operation specific
Doesn't contain a built in I/O port. The I/O Most of the processors contain multiple built-
port functionality needs to be implemented in I/O ports which can be operated as a single
with the help of external programmable 8 or 16 or 32 bit port or as individual port pins
peripheral interface chips like 8255
Targeted for high end market where Targeted for embedded market where
performance is important performance is not so critical
Limited power saving options compared to Includes lot of power saving features
microcontrollers

4.6.2 RISC VS. CISC PROCESSORS/CONTROLLERS

The term RISC stands for Reduced Instruction Set Computing. As the name implies, all RISC
processors/controllers possess lesser number of instructions, typically in the range of 30 to 40.
CISC stands for Complex Instruction Set Computing. From the definition itself it is clear that
the instruction set is complex and instructions are high in number. From a programmers point
of view RISC processors are comfortable since s/he needs to learn only a few instructions,
whereas for a CISC processor s/he needs to learn more number of instructions and should
understand the context of usage of each instruction (This scenario is explained on the basis ofa
programmer following Assembly Language coding. For a programmer following C coding it

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doesn’t matter since the cross-compiler is responsible for the conversion of the high level
language instructions to machine dependent code). Atmel AVR microcontroller is an example
for a RISC processor and its instruction set contains only 32 instructions. The original versionof
8051 microcontroller (e.g. AT89C51) is a CISC controller and its instruction set contains 255
instructions. Remember it is not the number of instructions that determines whether a
processor/controller is CISC or RISC. There are some other factors like pipelining features,
instruction set type, etc. for determining the RISC/CISC criteria. Some of the important criteria
are listed below:
Table 4.3 RISC vs. CISC

RISC CISC
Lesser number of instructions Greater number of instructions
Instruction pipelining and increased execution Generally no instruction pipelining feature
speed
Orthogonal instruction set (Allows each Non-orthogonal instruction set (Allinstructions
instruction to operate on any register and use are not allowed to operate on any register and
any addressing mode) use any addressing mode. It is
instruction-specific)
Operations are performed on registers only, Operations are performed on registers or
the only memory operations are load and store memory depending on the instruction
A large number of registers are available Limited number of general purpose registers
Programmer needs to write more code to Instructions are like macros in C language. A
execute a task since the instructions are simpler programmer can achieve the desired
ones functionality with a single instruction which
in turn provides the effect of using more
simpler single instructions in RISC
Single, fixed length instructions Variable length instructions
Less silicon usage and pin count More silicon usage since more additional
decoder logic is required to implement the
complex instruction decoding
With Harvard Architecture Can be Harvard or Von-Neumann
Architecture

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 Sensors and Interfacing

4.7 INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL SYSTEMS

Fig. 4.2 shows the arrangement of an instrumentation system. The physical quantity to be
measured (e.g. temperature) acts upon a sensor that produces an electrical output signal. This
signal is an electrical analogue of the physical input but note that there may not be a linear
relationship between the physical quantity and its electrical equivalent. Because of this and
since the output produced by the sensor may be small or may suffer from the presence of noise
(i.e. unwanted signals) further signal conditioning will be required before the signal will be at
an acceptable level and in an acceptable form for signal processing, display and recording.
Furthermore, because the signal processing may use digital rather than analogue signals an
additional stage of analogue-to-analogue conversion may be required. Fig. 4.2 (b) shows the
arrangement of a control system. This uses negative feedback in order to regulate and stabilize
the output. It thus becomes possible to set the input or demand (i.e. what we desire the output
to be) and leave the system to regulate itself by comparing it with a signal derived from the
output (via a sensor and appropriate signal conditioning). A comparator is used to sense the
difference in these two signals and where any discrepancy is detected the input to the power
amplifier is adjusted accordingly. This signal is referred to as an error signal (it should be zero
when the output exactly matches the demand). The input (demand) is often derived from a
simple potentiometer connected across a stable d.c. voltage source while the controlled device
can take many forms (e.g. a d.c. motor, linear actuator, heater, etc.).

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 Fig. 4.2 Instrumentation and control systems

4.8 TRANSDUCERS

Transducers are devices that convert energy in the form of sound, light, heat, etc., into an
equivalent electrical signal, or vice versa. Before we go further, let’s consider a couple of
examples that you will already be familiar with. A loudspeaker is a transducer that converts low
frequency electric current into audible sounds. A microphone, on the other hand, is a transducer
that performs the reverse function i.e. that of converting sound pressure variations into voltage
or current. Loudspeakers and microphones can thus be considered as complementary
transducers.

Transducers may be used both as inputs to electronic circuits and outputs from them. From the
two previous examples, it should be obvious that a loudspeaker is an output transducer
designed for use in conjunction with an audio system. A microphone is an input transducer
designed for use with a recording or sound reinforcing system. There are many different types
of transducer and Tables 4.4 and 4.5 provide some examples of transducers that can be used to
input and output three important physical quantities; sound, temperature and angular position.

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 Table 4.4 Some examples of input transducers

Table 4.5 Some examples of output transducers

Fig. 4.4 A selection of audible transducers

Fig. 4.3 A selection of thermocouple probes

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4.9 SENSORS

A sensor is a special kind of transducer that is used to generate an input signal to a

measurement, instrumentation or control system. The signal produced by a sensor is an
electrical analogy of a physical quantity, such as distance, velocity, acceleration, temperature,
pressure, light level, etc. The signals returned from a sensor, together with control inputs from
the user or controller (as appropriate) will subsequently be used to determine the output from
the system. The choice of sensor is governed by a number of factors including accuracy,
resolution, cost and physical size. Sensors can be categorized as either active or passive. An
active sensor generates a current or voltage output. A passive transducer requires a source of
current or voltage and it modifies this in some way (e.g. by virtue of a change in the sensor’s
resistance). The result may still be a voltage or current but it is not generated by the sensor on
its own. Sensors can also be classed as either digital or analogue. The output of a digital sensor
can exist in only two discrete states, either ‘on’ or ‘off’, ‘low’ or ‘high’, ‘logic 1’ or ‘logic 0’,
etc. The output of an analogue sensor can take any one of an infinite number of voltage or
current levels. It is thus said to be continuously variable. Table 3.5 provides details of some
common types of sensor.

Fig. 4.5 Various switch sensors Fig. 4.6 Liquid level float switch

Fig. 4.7 Resistive linear position sensor Fig. 4.8 Various optical and light
sensors

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 Fig. 4.9 Various temperature andgas Fig. 4.10 Liquid flow sensor(digital
sensors output)

4.10 ACTUATORS

Actuator is a form of transducer device (mechanical or electrical) which converts signals to

corresponding physical action (motion). Actuator acts as an output device.

4.10.1 LED

Light Emitting Diode (LED) is an important output device for visual indication in any
embedded system. LED can be used as an indicator for the status of various signals or
situations. Typical examples are indicating the presence of power conditions like ‘Device ON’,
‘Battery low’ or ‘Charging of battery’ for a battery operated handheld embedded devices.

Light Emitting Diode is a p-n junction diode (Refer Analog Electronics fundamentals to refresh
your memory for p-n junction diode ©) and it contains an anode and a cathode. For proper
functioning of the LED, the anode of it should be connected to +ve terminal of the supply
voltage and cathode to the -ve terminal of supply voltage. The current flowing through the LED
must be limited to a value below the maximum current that it can conduct. A resister is used in
series between the power supply and the LED to limit the current through the LED. The ideal
LED interfacing circuit is shown in Fig. 3.11.

Fig. 4.11 LED interfacing

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LEDs can be interfaced to the port pin of a processor/controller in two ways. In the first method,
the anode is directly connected to the port pin and the port pin drives the LED. In thisapproach
the port pin ‘sources’ current to the LED when the port pin is at logic High (Logic ‘1’). In the
second method, the cathode of the LED is connected to the port pin of the processor/controller
and the anode to the supply voltage through a current limiting resistor. The LED is turned on
when the port pin is at logic Low (Logic ‘0’). Here the port pin ‘sinks’ current. If the LED is
directly connected to the port pin, depending on the maximum current that a port pin can source,
the brightness of LED may not be to the required level. In the secondapproach, the current is
directly sourced by the power supply and the port pin acts as the sink for current. Here we will
get the required brightness for the LED.

4.10.2 7-SEGMENT LED DISPLAY

The 7-segment LED display is an output device for displaying alpha numeric characters. It
contains 8 light-emitting diode (LED) segments arranged in a special form. Out of the 8 LED
segments, 7 are used for displaying alpha numeric characters and 1 is used for representing
‘decimal point’ in decimal number display. Figure 3.12 explains the arrangement of LED
segments in a 7-segment LED display.

The LED segments are named A to G and the decimal point LED segment is named as DR The
LED segments A to G and DP should be lit accordingly to display numbers and characters. For
example, for displaying the number 4, the segments F, G, B and C are lit, For displaying 3, the
segments A, B, C, D, G and DP are lit. For displaying the character ‘d’, the segments B, C, D,
E and G are lit. All these 8 LED segments need to be connected to one port of the
processor/controller for displaying alpha numeric digits. The 7-segment LED displays are
available in two different configurations, namely; Common Anode and Common Cathode. In
the common anode configuration, the anodes of the 8 segments are connected commonly
whereas in the common cathode configuration, the 8 LED segments share a common cathode
line. Fig. 3.13 illustrates the Common Anode and Cathode configurations.

Based on the configuration of the 7-segment LED unit, the LED segment’s anode or cathode
is connected to the port of the processor/controller in the order ‘A’ segment to the least
significant port pin and DP segment to the most significant port pin.

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 Fig. 4.12 7-segment LED display

Fig. 4.13 Common Anode and Cathode configurations of a 7-segment LED display

The current flow through each of the LED segments should be limited to the maximum value
supported by the LED display unit. The typical value for the current falls within the range of
20mA. The current through each segment can be limited by connecting a current limiting
resistor to the anode or cathode of each segment. The value for the current limiting resistors
can be calculated using the current value from the electrical parameter listing of the LED
display.

For common cathode configurations, the anode of each LED segment is connected to the port
pins of the port to which the display is interfaced. The anode of the common anode LED display
is connected to the 5V supply voltage through a current limiting resistor and the cathode of
each LED segment is connected to the respective port pin lines. For an LED segment to lit in
the Common anode LED configuration, the port pin to which the cathode of the LED segment
is connected should be set at logic 0.

7-segment LED display is a popular choice for low cost embedded applications like, Public
telephone call monitoring devices, point of sale terminals, etc.

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