Module 2
Clays
‘Clay’ is normally understood to mean a clay soil whose grains are predominantly
composed of clay minerals and which has plasticity and cohesion. Though the clay soils are
fine-grained, not all fine-grained soils possess plasticity and cohesion. The presence of water,
which is relatively unimportant in coarse-grained soils, plays a decisive role in the engineering
behaviour of a clay soil. On the other hand, grain-size distribution, and grain shape influence the
engineering behaviour of granular soils and hardly affect the behaviour of clay soils. Silts, which
can be both granular and fine-grained, are somewhere in between. They are non-cohesive and
non-plastic, but water does affect their behaviour in the sense that they are dilatant even though
their strength is not very much affected by water content.
The ingredients necessary to give a soil deposit cohesion are clay minerals. Clay minerals are
very active electrochemically and the presence of even a small amount of clay minerals can
appreciably alter the engineering properties of a soil mass. Generally, when over 50 per cent
of the soil deposit consists of particles whose diameter is 0.002 mm or less, the deposit is
termed clay. When the percentage of clay content is about 50, the larger soil particles are
suspended in a clay matrix, and have little effect on the properties of the soil mass. Also
clay soil grains are predominantly composed of clay minerals and has plasticity and
cohesion.
The clay materials are basically composed of tiny crystalline substances of one or more members
of a small group of minerals—commonly known as clay minerals. These clay minerals are
evolved mainly from the chemical weathering of certain rock-forming minerals. Chemically,
these minerals are hydrous alumino-silicates with other metallic ions. Their particles are very
small in size, very flaky in shape and thus have considerable surface area. They can only be
viewed with an electron microscope. The clay minerals, on the basis of their crystalline
arrangement, can be divided into three main groups: kaolinite, Illite and montmorillonite. It is
observed that more or less similar engineering properties are exhibited by all clay minerals
belonging to a particular group. It is the mode of stacking of crystal sheets, nature of bonding
forces and different metallic ions in crystal lattice that make different clay minerals.
Tetrahedral or Silica Sheet
The tetrahedral sheet is a result of combining silica tetrahedral units which consist of four oxygen
atoms placed at the tips of a tetrahedron enclosing a silicon atom. Each of the O ions at the base
is common to two adjacent units. The sharing of charges leaves three negative charges at the base
per tetrahedral unit. This, along with the two negative charges at the apex, makes a total of five
negative charges to four positive charges of the silicon ion. Thus, there is a net charge of –1 per
unit.
Octahedral Sheet
The octahedral sheet is a combination of octahedral units. An octahedral unit has six hydroxyl
ions at the tips of an octahedron enclosing an aluminium or magnesium or some other metallic
atom. The rows of hydroxyl ions in the sheet are in two planes with each hydroxyl ion common
to three octahedral units. The net charge of an individual octahedral unit is typically neutral or
slightly positive, but in the full clay mineral structure, substitutions (e.g. Al³⁺ replaced by Mg²⁺)
may lead to net negative charge in the layers — which is then balanced by interlayer cations (like
K⁺, Na⁺, etc.).
Isomorphous substitution
In clays, ions of similar size but different charge can substitute for each other during the mineral's
formation (not after). This happens mainly in the tetrahedral and octahedral sheets of clay
minerals. The effect of isomorphous substitution includes:
• Net negative charge: When lower-valence ion (like Mg²⁺) replaces a higher-valence ion
(like Al³⁺), it leaves a deficiency of positive charge, resulting in a permanent negative
charge on the clay layer.
• Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC): The negative charge attracts and holds exchangeable
cations (like Na⁺, K⁺, Ca²⁺) in the interlayer space or on the surface. Higher isomorphous
substitution → Higher CEC
• Swelling and Plasticity: Clays with montmorillonite, which have high isomorphous
substitution, absorb more water, swell, and exhibit high plasticity.
Clay minerals
❖ Kaolinite:
The kaolinite structural unit consists of alternating layers of silica tetrahedra with the tips
embedded in an alumina (gibbsite) octahedral unit. This stacking of one layer of each of the
two basic sheets produces what is sometimes called a 1:1 clay mineral. The resulting layer
is about 7Å thick (1Å = 10⁻¹⁰ m) and extends indefinitely in the other two dimensions. A
kaolinite crystal is a stacking of 70 to 100 or more of these basic 7Å thick layers. The
structural units are held together by hydrogen bonds between the hydroxyls of the octahedral
sheet and the oxygens of the tetrahedral sheet. The bonding with hydrogen bond results in
considerable strength and stability with little tendency in the interlayer to allow swell or
shrink. Kaolinite is less active clay.
❖ Illite:
The Illite mineral is a 2:1 mineral similar to montmorillonite in crystal structure. Illite has a
substantial amount of isomorphous substitution of silicon ions by aluminium in the silica
sheet. But in illite, potassium ions occupy positions between the adjacent O base planes.
Hexagonal holes in the silica sheet have just the right diameter for the potassium ions to fill
the gap, and thus the potassium ion bonds the two layers together more firmly than is the
case in montmorillonite, with the result that the lattice is much less susceptible to cleavage.
Illite, therefore, does not swell as much in the presence of water as montmorillonite, but it
does much more than kaolinite.
❖ Montmorillonite
It is also called Smectite. The structural unit of the mineral is composed of two silica sheets
and one alumina (gibbsite) sheet, a 2:1 mineral. The octahedral sheet is sandwiched between
two silica sheets with the tips of the tetrahedron combining with the hydroxyls of the
octahedral sheet to form a single layer. The thickness of this layer is about 9.6 Å° and the
dimensions in the other two directions are indefinite. The interlayer bonding between the
tops of silica sheets is mainly due to van der Waals forces and is, thus, very weak compared
to hydrogen or potassium ion bonding. Partial isomorphic substitution such as Al³⁺ for Si⁴⁺
in the tetrahedral sheet and Mg²⁺, Fe²⁺, Li⁺ or Zn²⁺ for Al³⁺ in the octahedral sheet also takes
place, resulting in a relatively large net negative charge deficiency. Further, montmorillonite
has the largest specific surface among major clay minerals. All these factors mean that a
large amount of water and other exchangeable ions can easily enter between the layers
causing the layers to be separated. Because of this affinity for water, clay soils containing
montmorillonite mineral are susceptible to substantial volume changes. They swell as the
water gains entry into the lattice structure and shrink if the water is removed because of
some reason. In a moist state, montmorillonite is highly plastic and has little internal friction.
Its excessive swelling capacity may seriously endanger the stability of overlying structures
and road pavements.
Bentonite is a montmorillonite clay derived from volcanic ash. It is used in drilling oil wells
and in soil exploration as a 'drilling mud' and as a clay grout. In India, clay soils containing
montmorillonite mineral are commonly known as ‘black cotton soils’ and cover about 20
per cent of the country’s area in the states of Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh,
Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh.
Electrical double layer formation and plasticity of clays
The electrical double layer (EDL) is a structure that forms at the interface between a clay
particle surface (which carries a negative charge) and the surrounding pore water (which
contains ions). Clay particles, especially montmorillonite, have negatively charged surfaces
due to isomorphous substitution (e.g., Al³⁺ replacing Si⁴⁺ in the crystal lattice). These
negative charges attract cations (e.g: Na⁺, Ca²⁺) from the surrounding water to form a double
layer, a structure consisting of a tightly bound inner layer of cations directly on the clay
surface (stern layer) and a looser outer layer of cations mixed with water (diffuse layer).
This double layer allows water to stick to the clay and form thin films around the clay
particles, making them slippery and able to move past each other easily. This movement
gives clays their plasticity, meaning they can be shaped or molded without cracking and
retain their shape afterward. The more water a clay can hold due to its electrical double layer,
the more plastic it becomes. This is why some clays like montmorillonite are highly plastic,
while others like kaolinite are less so. The electrical double layer and plasticity together
influence how clays behave in construction, such as their strength, swelling, and workability.
Plasticity of clays
Plasticity of Clays refers to the ability of clay to undergo deformation without cracking or
breaking, and to retain that deformed shape once the external force is removed. Clay
particles are very small and plate-like in shape. When water is added, it forms a thin layer
between these plates, acting like a lubricant. This allows the particles to slide past each other
easily under pressure — making the clay plastic. Once the pressure is removed, the structure
remains — due to interparticle forces and surface tension in the water film. Thus, plasticity
of clays refers to the property of clay-rich soils that allows them to be moulded or deformed
without cracking or breaking when they contain a certain amount of moisture. This property
is due to the presence of clay minerals and water, which together form a cohesive, mouldable
soil mass.
Consistency is a term which is used to describe the degree of firmness of a soil in a
qualitative manner by using descriptions such as soft medium, firm, stiff or hard. It indicates
the relative ease with which a soil can be deformed. In practice, the property of consistency
is associated only with fine-grained soils, especially clays. The physical properties of clays
are considerably influenced by the amount of water present in them. Depending upon the
water content, the following four stages or states of consistency are used to describe the
consistency of a clay soil: (i) the liquid state; (ii) the plastic state; (iii) the semi-solid state,
and (iv) the solid state. The boundary water contents at which the soil undergoes a change
from one state to another are called “consistency limits”. In 1911, a Swedish soil scientist,
Atterberg, first demonstrated the significance of these limits. Hence, they are also known as
the Atterberg Limits. These limits of water content, though empirical in nature, are of great
significance in understanding the behaviour of clays.
When a fine-grained soil is mixed thoroughly with a large quantity of water, the resulting
suspension is in a liquid state, and offers practically no resistance to flow. In other words,
the soil has virtually no shear strength. If the water content of the suspension is gradually
reduced keeping the consistency of the sample uniform, a stage comes when it just begins
offering resistance to flow. This is the stage when the sample changes from possessing no
shearing strength to having an infinitesimal shear strength and changes from the liquid to
the plastic state.
Liquid limit (LL) is the water content at which a soil is practically in a liquid state, but has
infinitesimal resistance against flow which can be measured by any standardised procedure.
With reference to standard procedure, the liquid limit is defined as the water content at which
a groove cut in a pat of soil by a grooving tool of standard dimensions will flow together for
a distance of 13 mm under the impact of 25 blows in a standard liquid limit device. It is the
boundary water content between the liquid state and the plastic state.
Procedure for determination of Liquid Limit of a soil
In the laboratory, the liquid limit of a soil is determined with the standard liquid limit
apparatus designed by A. Casagrande. The apparatus consists of a vulcanised rubber
compound base with a brass cup suitably mounted. The brass cup can be raised and made to
fall on the rubber base through a cam arrangement operated by a handle. The height of fall
of the brass cup can be adjusted with the help of an adjusting screw. Before the start of the
test, the height of the fall of the cup is adjusted to 10 mm.
A grooving tool is used to cut a groove in the pat of soil placed in the cup. The grooving
tools is used based on the type of soil. For a soil of low plasticity, the ASTM grooving tool
is preferred. About 120 g of air-dried soil passing through IS sieve 425 micron is taken and
mixed with water such that the soil attains a putty-like consistency. A portion of the paste is
placed in the cup and is levelled so as to have a maximum depth of about 10 mm. A groove
is cut in the soil placed in the cup, using the grooving tool. In cutting the groove, the grooving
tool is drawn through the sample along the symmetrical axis of the cup, holding the tool
perpendicular to the cup. The handle is rotated at the rate of 2 revolutions per second and
the number of blows necessary to close the groove for a distance of 13 mm is noted. The
groove should close by flow and not by slippage of soil. Then, about 10 g of soil near the
closed groove is taken to determine its water content. By altering the water content of the
soil and repeating the operations mentioned above, four to five readings of water content in
the range of 10 to 40 blows are obtained.
A graph is then plotted between number of blows, N on a logarithmic scale and the water
content, w on a natural scale. It will be seen that the semi-logarithmic plot is a straight line
called the flow curve. The liquid limit is determined by reading the water content
corresponding to 25 blows on the flow curve. From the definition of liquid limit, all soils
possess the same value of shearing strength at liquid limit. It is about 2.7kPa.
The flow index (If) is a measure of how quickly a soil loses its shear strength as its water
content increases. It's essentially the rate of change of water content with respect to the
number of blows required to cause the soil to flow. It is the slope of flow curve
If = (w1 - w2) / log10(n2/n1)
Plastic limit (PL) is defined as the water content at which a soil would just begin to crumble
when rolled into a thread of approximately 3 mm diameter. In the plastic state, the soil can
be moulded to different shapes without rupturing it, due to its plasticity.
Test procedure
About 15 g of air-dried soil passing through IS sieve 425 micron is taken for plastic limit
determination and is mixed with a sufficient quantity of water which would enable the soil
mass to become plastic enough to be easily shaped into a ball. A portion of the ball is taken
and rolled on a glass plate with the palm of the hand into a thread of uniform diameter
throughout its length. When a diameter of 3 mm is reached, the soil is remoulded into a ball.
The process of making the thread and remoulding is continued till the thread at a diameter
of 3 mm, just starts crumbling. Some of the crumbled portion of thread is kept in the oven
for water content determination. The test is repeated twice with fresh samples. The average
of the three values of water contents is taken as the plastic limit.
Plasticity Index (Ip)
Plasticity index, Ip, is the range of moisture content over which a soil exhibits plasticity. It
is the numerical difference between the liquid limit and the plastic limit. Plasticity index
indicates the degree of plasticity of a soil. Greater the plasticity index, greater the plasticity
of the soil. Clay soils possessing high values of liquid limit and plasticity index are referred
to as highly plastic or fat clays and those with low values described as lean clays.
Coarse grained soils cannot achieve the plastic state of consistency and their liquid limit and
plastic limit may be said to coincide; that is, Ip = 0. When the liquid limit or the plastic limit
cannot be determined, the plasticity index is reported as NP (non-plastic). When the plastic
limit is equal to or greater than the liquid limit, Ip is reported as zero.
IP = LL-PL
Plasticity Index Degree of plasticity Degree of cohesiveness
0 Non plastic Non cohesive
<7 Low plastic Partly cohesive
7-17 Medium plastic Cohesive
>17 Highly plastic Cohesive
Highly plastic soils compress easily under load, swelling and shrinkage potential is
high, thus, volume change is high with moisture variation, and low shear strength when
saturated
Consistency index or Relative consistency (Ic) is defined as the ratio of the difference
between the liquid limit and the natural water content of a soil to its plasticity index. The in-
situ behaviour of a saturated, fine-grained soil deposit at its natural water content may be
studied by their consistency index or relative consistency. Relative consistency of a clay soil
is a very important soil aggregate property.
𝑳𝑳−𝑾𝒏
Ic=
𝑳𝑳−𝑷𝑳
Where LL is liquid limit of soil, wn= natural or in-situ water content of soil in field, PL
is plastic limit of soil
• If Ic is negative, the natural water content of the soil is greater than the liquid limit
and the soil mass behaves like a liquid.
• If wn = LL, Ic = 0; soil is in liquid state, very low shear strength
• If wn = PL, Ic = 1, soil is in plastic state, soil is mouldable, moderate to high shear
strength
• If Ic is greater than 1, the soil is in a semi-solid or solid state and will be very stiff or
hard.
Lower Ic indicates more plastic is soil or soil is in softer state and has lower shear
strength and is more prone to settlement
• Liquidity index (IL) indicates how close the natural water content of a fine-grained soil
is to its liquid limit, reflecting its consistency. It's calculated as the ratio of the difference
between the natural water content and the plastic limit to the plasticity index. A higher
LI generally indicates a more liquid or "softer" state of the soil.
Shrinkage limit is the maximum water content at which a decrease in moisture content does
not cause any decrease in the volume of the soil mass. It is also the smallest value of water
content at complete saturation of the soil mass.
Test Procedure: About 30 g of soil passing through IS: 425-micron sieve is taken in an
evaporating dish. The soil is mixed with sufficient quantity of water to bring the soil to a
consistency that it may flow. The soil mixture is placed in the shrinkage dish in three equal
quantities so as to fill the dish. The excess soil is removed and the dish is weighed with soil.
The soil pat is allowed to dry in the air till the colour of the pat changes from dark to light.
The dish is then placed in the oven at 110°C till its weight becomes constant. The shrinkage
dish is weighed with the dry sample and the dry weight of soil is determined. The volume
of dry pat of soil is measured by the mercury displacement method. The shrinkage limit is
calculated as shown below. As the sample is gradually dried, the water content at a certain
stage becomes equal to the shrinkage limit. At this point, the volume decreases to V₂, the
corresponding weight being W₂. The sample is still in a saturated state. Beyond the shrinkage
limit, the sample continues to dry with no further volume decrease, until it reaches the dry
state with volume (Vd) and weight (Wd).
Activity of clays
Activity is calculated as the ratio of the plasticity index (PI) to the percentage of clay sized
particles in the soil. The activity of a clay is a measure of the clay's plasticity relative to its
content of clay-sized particles (particles smaller than 2 microns). It reflects how reactive
the clay is in terms of volume change and plastic deformation. Soils with a low activity
value (typically less than 0.75) are considered inactive, and they generally exhibit less
swelling and shrinkage behavior. These clays, like kaolinite, are more stable and pose
fewer problems in construction. Normal or moderately active clays have activity values
between 0.75 and 1.25 (Illite), while highly active clays, such as montmorillonite, have
values greater than 1.25 and are known for their high swelling potential. The activity of
clay is a key factor in evaluating its suitability for foundations and earthworks, as highly
active clays can cause significant heave or settlement in structures.
Sensitivity of clays refers to the extent to which a clay soil loses its strength when
disturbed or remolded at a constant water content. It is defined as the ratio of the
undisturbed shear strength to the remolded shear strength. Sensitive clays have a relatively
high undisturbed strength due to their natural structure or bonding (such as cementation or
particle alignment), but once this structure is broken—by excavation, loading, or
vibration—their strength decreases drastically.
Clays with sensitivity values between 1 and 2 are considered to have low sensitivity,
while values above 16 are termed quick clays, which are dangerously unstable and prone
to sudden collapse or flow slides. Sensitivity is particularly important in evaluating the risk
of landslides and failures in slopes, embankments, and excavations. In construction, highly
sensitive soils require special care, as even minimal disturbance can lead to catastrophic
strength loss and instability.
Thixotropy of clays
Thixotropy is the time-dependent property of certain fine-grained soils, particularly
clays, where the soil loses strength when remolded or disturbed but gradually regains
strength when left undisturbed. This phenomenon occurs because remoulding disturbs
the structure of the clay—breaking bonds and particle arrangement—which leads to a
temporary loss in cohesion. Over time, if the clay remains at rest, the particles slowly
realign and re-establish interparticle forces, resulting in a partial or complete recovery of
strength.
Thixotropy is significant in soft marine clays and is influenced by the clay mineralogy,
pore water chemistry, and organic content. In engineering, thixotropy plays a role in
determining how long it will take for a soil to regain strength after construction activities
like excavation, piling, or tunneling. While thixotropic recovery can help restore some
soil stability, relying on it without proper analysis can lead to unsafe designs, especially
in time-sensitive projects or where long-term soil performance is critical.