Chapter - One

Introduction
 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Conceptual Framework

From time immemorial, the primary concern of man has been the
protection of his person and possession. It is only when those two are properly
protected that man lives a happy life. All the social, political and economic
institutions that have been devised so far are meant to minister to these two
primary needs. Greek political philosopher Aristotle was of the opinion that a
happy and honourable life can be secured by a political institution called the State.
However, Mac Iver went a step forward to emphasize the fact that it is the
government through which the state can protect the person and property of the
individuals and secure for them a happy and honourable existence. In the language
of Mac Iver,, the State is "an association which acting through law as promulgated
by a government, endowed to this end with coercive power, maintains within a
community territorially demarcated the universal, external conditions of social
order."1

Thus, it is through the agency of a government that the person and property
of the individual is protected, his safety and security are assured and it paves the
way for the realization of a happy and honourable life. Thus, the whole system of
individual safety and security revolves round the idea of a state or the government.

In the ancient Indian Literature, the idea of state was very often explained
in the idea of a government and kingship. The State was meant to control the
human activities in order to provide safety and security to the life and properties
of the individuals. For the sake of ensuring discipline and order in the society, the
state applies force i.e. danda, which is manifested through power and authority.

1. Mac Iver, R.M., The Modem State, London, 1926, p.22.

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The State, therefore, was regarded as an institution endowed with authority to

apply force when required over the individual actions that go against discipline,
order, peace and happiness in the society. The government is the active agency
within the state which is empowered to regulate and control the activities of
individuals in the larger interests of the community. As Leslie Lipson said : "The
Government is allowed to exercise the coercive force of the whole. But how does
this come about? What is that permits a few to will the force of many? The answer
can be found if one remembers that though the functions of government begin with
protection, they evolve beyond their starting point. Protection grows into order
and order seeks to blossom into justice. Something similar happens with the
techniques of government since a method that is adequate at one stage of
development ceases to be so at the next. Force may be sufficient for protection.
But to create order something more is required. This extra something is called
power. Power is simply force with some consent added. How large should be the
volume of consent is debatable. Indeed, the quantity may vary with consequential
differences of great importance. Consent plus force equals power."2

Thus, although governments differ from one another, governments,

whatever may be their nature, must bank upon power and this power may be
either arrogated to itself by force or enjoyed by it on the basis of consent of those
whose interests it protects and promotes. Hence, all governments in the world
irrespective of their nature and character use power in greater or lesser measure.
The government in order to be more stable and obtain willing obedience of the
subjects, must be based on consent. Even dictatorial governments cannot continue
for long unless backed by the support and consent of a sizeable section of the
people who lay their consent either voluntarily or out of fear.

2. Leslie Lipson, The Great Issues of Politics, Ch.3, Bombay, Jaico

Publishing House, 1973, p.75-76.
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Thus, we find that governments within the state whatever may be its brand
or nature, must protect the person and property of individuals and secure social
harmony and peace. It is supposed to be the legitimized authority discharging its
enormous responsibilities. It can prove its legitimacy only by fulfilling the
expectations of the governed and of course forfeit the loyalty of the subjects by
non-fulfilment of its obligations.

In ancient Indian Polity, we find the predominance of the monarchical form

of government although republics were not rare. The king occupied an elevated
position in the governmental system. In the Vedas, the Puranas and the
Upanishads, we find a dignified position assigned to kingship. It was with a view
to bring about a just social order dedicated to social welfare in ancient India.
Manu in order to assign the king a dignified place in his scheme of things has
written in his Law Code :
"He (Lord) made him of eternal particles of Indra, and the Wind,
Yama, the Sun and Fire, Vanina, the Moon and the Lord of Wealth".3

"And because he has been formed of fragments of all these Gods, the king
surpasses all other beings in splendour. Even an infant king must not be despised
as though a mere mortal for his is a great God in human form. "4

In the Shantiprava of Mahabharata, the Indian epic, monarch occupies the

central place in the political framework. It is said there is "A man should first
choose his king, then his wife, and only then amass wealth, for without a king in
the world, where would wife and property be ?"5

3. Astanam Lokapalanam matrabhir nirmito nr,pah/Manusmriti.

4. balopi navamantavyo manusya iti bhumipah / mahati devata hy esa

nararupena tisthati // ibid.

5. Mahabharata, Vol. VII, Ch. 57, p.41.

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Kingship in ancient India can be properly understood in the context of the

cultural heritage of India. India’s cultural heritage is characterized by a deep sense
of spirituality and a profound religious fervour. The Sanskrit term "dharma" with
a variety of meanings rather more suitably explained - the essential characteristics
of the Indian cultural heritage than the western concept of religion. Hence, ancient
Indian polity can be properly understood and its spirit rightly realized only when
its intimate and indissoluble relationship with dharma is correctly grasped.
Accordingly it has been observed, "Dharma is the core concept of Hindu Political
theory, profound in its implications and subject to varied definitions."6 Dharma
is also deeply embedded in ancient Indian Polity that some early ancient Indian
texts on statecraft are styled as Dharma-sutras.

The term dharma has been differently interpreted by Western Indologists

and scholars who attribute a variety of meanings to the term. Etymologically
dharma is derived from the root "dhr" which means to uphold, to keep together
or to support. Professor Keith has used it in the sense of custom, law and
righteous conduct.7 But as Mackenzie Brown has observed "Ultimately it is more
than law for it is what underlies and creates laws in the universe".8 By usage the
term has been used in many senses both scientific and common such as law,
justice, duty, virtue, morality and righteousness apart from signifying religious
creed. But the western Indologist Professor F. Kielhom has very appropriately
written, "I find no English word by which I can fully express all the meanings of
the Sanskrit term - Dharma.”9

6. dharanad dharmam ityahur dharmam dharayate Prajah - MBH.

7. Keith, A.B., History of Sanskrit Literature, p.92.

8. D. Mackenzie Brown, The White Umbrella, p.15.

9. Kielhom, Epigraphica Indica, Vol. IX, p. 113.

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However dharma in the Indian sense from time immemorial has been
mainly used to signify some integrating and unifying factor, certain moral precepts
and principles, some lofty human and social ideals like high sense of duty and
above all righteous and virtuous human conduct. Hence, understood in the context
of ancient Indian polity the term dharma has a sufficiently deep, broad and more
comprehensive connotation than the English term - religion. As P.V. Kane has
written, "The conception of dharma has a far-reaching connotation embracing the
whole life of man. The writers on Dharmashastra meant by dharma, not a creed
or religion, but a mode of life or a code of conduct which regulated man’s work
and activities as a member of society and as an individual and was intended to
bring about the gradual development of a man and to enable him to reach what
was deemed to be the goal of human existence".10 Hence, if the ancient Indian
Polity was predominantly monarchical, dharma considered in such broad, deep,
comprehensive, idealistic, and humanitarian and societarian sense of the term
constituted the spirit of such monarchy or the core of such monarchical polity.

1.2 Scope and Objectives of Study

The modem State concept is at the Centre of all political activities. R.M.
Maclver defines the State "as an association which acting through law as
promulgated by a government endowed to this end with coercive power, maintains
within a community territorially demarcated the universal external conditions of
social order". In the ancient Indian thought, however the State was regarded as the
antithesis of Matsyanyaya - the rule of the big fish swallowing the small fish. It
symbolized the conditions of order, law, justice, security and welfare. The State
was generally a commendable institution in the political thinking of the ancient
Hindus.

10. Kane, P.V., History of Dharmasastra, [Link], Bhandarkar Oriental

Research Institute, Poona, 1946, p.2.
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The Hindu political philosophers unlike some western thinkers never

characterise the State as a "necessary evil". It was thought and believed that
human beings can find security only in and through the State. Without a sovereign
authority to establish law and order and maintain peace, the stronger will swallow
the weaker in the manner of Matsyanyaya where the big fish swallows up the
small fish.

The very aim of the State was to promote the all round progress of the
citizens both in this life and in the life to come. If there is no State, there would
simply prevail the law of the jungle. State is thus indispensable for the progress
and happiness of the individuals and its main aim is to promote them.

In the ancient Indian polity, the State was considered as a political

instrument to promote the cause of dharrm. It was a necessary benefactor. The
State has been treated as an essential institution for the advancement of the four
fold path of life i.e., Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksa.

The word "Dharma" is derived from Sanskrit root dhr meaning to hold
together, to preserve. The meaning of dharma as a principle for maintaining the
stability of society is brought out by Srikrishna in three verses in Mahabharata.
Explaining the concept of dharma Lord Srikrishna says that "darma is created for
the well being of creation" and that "all that is free from doing harm to any
created being is certainly dharma’ for indeed, dharma is created to keep all
creation free from any harm".

Artha refers to the problem and activities connected with finding, making,
gathering, conserving and organizing of the material necessities of life. Similarly,
Kama, refers to sex and the reproductive aspect, its understanding, its right
function, its organisation and management both with reference to all the
individuals and the group. In a wider sense, Kama refers to all the innate desires
and urges of man.
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Finally, the word moksa refers to salvation that man aims at attaining after
death.11 In the writings of A.C. Sarangi regarding Purusarthas consisting of
Dharma (an ethical value of life), Artha (an economic value of life), Kama (an
aesthetic as well as sensuous value of life) and lastly the supreme goal, Moksa (the
spiritual value of life). The Pumsartha concept is the principal motive of the Hindu
attitude. It is nothing but the four-fold objective of human existence.12

It has sometimes been held that the ancient Indian State was an
agglomeration of power with absolute authority over the lives of the people and
that against its depredations, the people had absolutely no redress. But the
available evidence appears to negate such an interpretation as the classical sources
suggest a minimal right for the State to legislate in day to day socio-economic
affairs.

The scope of studying the State by the ancient Indian thinkers especially by
Sukra and Kamandaka is to highlight the superior position of the State as the
epitome of individual security and happiness. The State was considered as a means
to achieve the end; i.e., the happiness of the individual and salvation. The State
occupies the highest status among all other human institutions to provide protection
to the individuals and establish a righteous living for them. The State was not a
political institution to inflict its power and authority only and be inimical to the
interests of the people. Rather, the State was viewed by the ancient scholars as a
moral authority which encounters all odds that come on the way of individual
happiness and establish a sound and perfect social system for their honourable
existence. The State according to Kautilya and Manu was not a loose assemblage
of parts, each having its own interests and moving at its own will, it was

11. Sarangi, A.C., Glimpses of Indian Culture, Bharatiya Vidya Prakashan,

Delhi, p. (ii).

12. Ibid, p.13.

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characterized by an organic unity. The King, the ministry, the territory, the
resources, the forts, the military forces and the allies constitute, according to these
writers, the seven constituents of the State. Kamandaka and Sukra regard this as
a self evident truth, and epigraphs also describe how the Kingdom acquired by the
heroes, whom they eulogize, possessed all the seven constituents (Saptanga).

The objectives of the study of State in Sukra and Kamandaka is to show the
difference between the constituents of a modem State and that of the ancient
Indian State. The constituents of the modem States are population, territory and
a Central Government having a juristic personality, a common will and
sovereignty. On the otherhand, the State is constituted of seven elements in the
writings of the ancient Indian writers. Those seven elements are ; Swamin (King),
Amatyas (Ministers), Rastra (Territory), Durga (Fort), Bala (Army), Kosa
(Treasury) and allies (friends). The two elements namely Swami and Amatyas
constitute the Central Government who are entrusted with and exercise sovereign
power. They are also meant for maintaining unity and integrity within the State.

Allies as an element of State needs special explanation in view of its

importance. It may be noted that in the ancient Indian political system, a large
number of small states existed. Our political thinkers in ancient India felt that their
independence and territorial integrity was dependent upon evolving a system of
balance of power through wise alliances.

As regards population, it is significant to note that it was not mentioned as

an element of State. It was probably felt that it was unnecessary and redundant to
mention it specifically being considered as a self-evident reality.

The seven constituents of the State are regarded as the limbs of the body
politic by the Indian political thinkers. Some of them like the King and the
ministers may be more prominent than others like the forts and the allies. But each
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limb, is indispensable for the working of the body polity since its functions can not
be efficiently discharged by ignoring any of them. The State can exist and function
properly only if all the limbs of the body polity become mutually integrated and

cooperate with each other.

Thus, it is clear that ancient Indian thinkers regarded the State as an

organic whole. They no doubt regarded King and Ministers as the most important
limbs of the organism, but other, if less important were also indispensable for the
proper functioning of the body politic. The western scholars have also viewed
about the organic theory of the State. But the difference between the ancient Indian
writers and the western writers is with regard to the limbs of the State and their
independent status within it.

The Vedic literature does not specifically discuss the aims or ideals of the
State. But the discussions made therein enable us to gather that peace, security and
justice were regarded as the fundamental aims of the State. The King or the head
of the state was to be like God Vanina, the upholder of the law and order; he was
to punish the wicked and reward the virtuous. Religion was to be promoted,
morality was to be encouraged and education was to be patronized. The State,
however, was to secure not only the moral but also the material well being of its
citizens. The kingdom of King Parikshit, idealized in the Atharva Veda, flowed
with milk and honey. All round welfare of the public was clearly regarded as the
chief aim of the state during the Vedic and Upanishadic ages; i.e. down to C. 600
B.C.

The state was to promote Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksa, the four-fold
objectives of human life. The state enjoins upon the people to develop a sense of
piety and religiousness by encouraging virtue and morality. That apart, it
maintains hospitals, feeding houses for the poor and helpless people, and also
patronises literature and sciences. The promotion of artha was to be ensured by
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encouraging trade, industry and agriculture and by developing national resources

etc. The State was to promote Kama by ensuring peace and order, so that each
individual may enjoy his conjugal life undisturbed. It also encourages fine arts like
music, dancing, painting, culture and architecture in order to promote aesthetic
culture and sensitibility. The State was also meant to facilitate moksa by providing
all measures to the people to independently think and act for attaining salvation.
Thus, the state was expected to maintain peace and order and promote the moral,
material and aesthetic progress of society.

The aforesaid discussion regarding the objectives of the state in ancient

India shows the superior position that the State occupies in promoting the moral,
spiritual as well as the aesthetic progress of the society. This predominant focus
on moral, spiritual as well as aesthetic progress of society in ancient Indian State
is not found in the conceptualisation of State by the western scholars.

Moral values of Ancient Indian Polity as could be found in a study of the

concept of State in Sukra and Kamandaka has a relevance of its own even for
contemporary India and for the contemporary world. At least these value
parameters of Ancient Indian Polity could be put up as an ideal to which the
existing rulers in particular and the people in general can try to approximate.

1.3 Review of Ancient Sources

My proposed dissertation entitled "The Concept of State in Sukra and
Kamandaka" is almost an untrodden field in the realm of ancient Indian Political
thought. There are few works in the field. However, the various works on ancient
Indian political thought in general provide adequate scope to understand "The
Concept of State in Sukra and Kamandaka. Hence, an attempt has been made to
provide a review of ancient Indian political literature and a few specific works
done on Sukra and Kamandaka as could be available to me.
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The concept of State revealed in the Sukraniti and Kamandakiyaniti clearly

point out the influence of moral standards and values both upon the rulers and the
ruled towards a righteous and virtuous living in the society. Both the treatises
clearly emphasize the Indian philosophical and political wisdom as well as the
features of ancient Indian polity. Assuming that the modem Indian political system
is, to an extent, founded on certain traditional political concepts, it would really
involve some intellectual effort to delineate the foundational aspect of ancient
Indian political concepts and relate them to the present political structures and
functions of the State.

Both Sukraniti and Kamandakiyaniti have stressed upon Dharma which is

the core concept of the ancient Indian polity. Vyasa, the well known compiler of
the great Indian epic, "Mahabharata" has also equally emphaized on dharma as the
basis of politics of the State and administration of the Kingdom. The King, as the
ruler, is to abide by the principles of dharma in his own life and work. Without
that he would encounter defeat from his enemies; the ghost of poverty will stalk
his land; there will be drought in his Kingdom and consequently no production of
crops. Over and above, he would meet his end because of non-compliance with
Dharma and moral values.

Hence, it is evident that the essence of the ancient Indian polity was
(religion) dharma which was a key note to success in one’s life i.e. in the life of
a mler and also in the enjoyment of a happy and prosperous life of an ordinary
man in the State. The Sukraniti and Kamandakiyaniti are also no exceptions to this
fundamental principle of ancient Indian literature which is based on Dharma.
Hence, dharma becomes a fundamental source to appreciate and understand the
concept of State in Sukra and Kamandaka.

Apart from the Sukraniti and Kamandakiyaniti, the other literatures in the
ancient Indian culture and traditions are the Vedas, Upanisads, Puranas,
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Dharmasastra, Dharmasutras, Epics, Arthasastra and Nitisastras. All these ancient

literatures have thrown light on polity, administration of the State, ethical code of
conduct for the ruler and the ruled and on morality and Dandaniti etc. The totality
of this rich literary mine also becomes a veritable source to understand and
appreciate the concept of State in Sukra and Kamandhaka.

The main purpose of reviewing the various literatures available in the

ancient Indian political thought is to point out the difference between the ancient
Indian polity and the modem concept of politics. It is also intended to make a
comparative study of the ancient Indian polity and the western political thought
and concepts. Our purpose of study is also to underline the importance and
imperative necessity of religious and moral values in the working of a political
system. This focus on religious and moral values, as per our humble
understanding, will go a long way in keeping the rulers of a State on the path of
righteousness and to actualise a brave new world based on world peace and
understanding. In this connection, it may be said that Dharma in ancient Indian
polity was not conceived to be a narrow and limited concept for adhering to only
certain rituals. It had behind it a broader purpose of establishing righteous rule in
State and a world order based on peace and understanding. Both Sukra and
Kamandaka have highlighted on the righteous rule of a State based on Dharma in
the greater interest of the subjects. This would pave the way for the peace,
prosperity and well being of the Kingdom.

In ancient India, we have the legendary example of Kings like Rama and
Janaka and also historical personalities like Chandra Gupta Maurya and Harsa
Vardhan. Is it possible to transform the present day politics and inject a value-
orientation into it. This becomes a major point of discussion and analysis.

The following are the main sources of the ancient Indian polity which
exercised influence on both the treatises i.e. the Sukraniti and the Kamandaka
Nitisara. Those main sources of ancient Indian political thought may be discussed
below.
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1.4 Original Sources

1) Vedas, 2) Upanisads, 3) Puranas, 4) Dharmasutras, 5) Dharmasastras or
smritis, 6) Epics, 7) Arthsastra, 8) Nitisastra with focus on Kamandakiys,
Nitisastra, Sukra Nitisastra. What needs special mention is that these sources
contain the quintessence of ancient India political thinking and a rich mine of
delineating its basic postulates. It is felt by us that the growth of a valuable and
valid Indian political theory can be developed on the foundations of ancient Indian
Political thought found in the profuse literature scattered far that wide. These
sources reveal the remarkably rich political culture and the distinct indigenous
framework of knowledge governing political concepts which do have a speciality
of its own.

1.4.1 Vedas
Vedas are generally regarded as the starting point of the entire ancient
Indian way of life and thought. The earliest literary manifestations of Indian
thought are to be found in the Vedas. With regard to the date during which Veda
was written, U.N. Ghosal following Maxmuller opined that it was composed in
between 1500 to 1000 B.C. Ghosal has written that Vedas were the formative
stage in the evolution of our ancient political institutions. To this entire period, he
has assigned:
a) The rise of the territorial states in place of the original tribal polity;
b) The institution of kingship invested with supreme executive, judicial and
military functions;
c) The complete separation of the spiritual form the temporal power;
d) The creation of a state administration; and
e) The creation of a social hierarchy supported by State authority and
consisting of Brahmanas as the privileged class and the sudras as the
oppressed class. This period was also marked by the rise of two types of
polity - the monarchies and the republics.
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The Vedic literature gives us enough acquaintance of contemporary history,

geography, social organization and the governmental system of Vedic sashtra.

1.4.2 Upanisads
The Upanisads represent the quintessence of the ancient Indian wisdom
that is embedded in the Vedas, those marvellous records of the spiritual experience
of man. They treat not of secular knowledge, which any science can teach, but of
Brahma-Vidya, the knowledge of the Brahman, the ultimate reality of the
Universe. The truth inculcated in them are not mere theories, but facts, as such,
are invulnerable.

The central theme of the Upanisads is to seek unity in the midst of

diversity. They form the basis of philosophical thought and spirituality. The
Upanisads insist more on the direct apprehensions of truth, and have laid deep
stress on psychic unfolding. A careful perusal of the Upanisadic texts leaves the
impressions upon the mind that there is a method of psychic development which
finally leads us to the realization of the ultimate truth.13

The Upanisads call upon every man and woman, in whatever station of life,
to stand up and assert their divine heritage. In this way they recognize no limits,
geographical, racial or any other. They are the greatest unifying factor in the
World for all time. They break all the fetters of mankind and raise men to their
true status as "Children of immortality" (Amritasya Putrah). Possibly, of all the
religious literatures of the World, give us the rationale of morality i.e. why we
should do good to others. Because we are all one. In helping others, we help
ourselves; and in hurting anybody, we hurt none but ourselves. In this sense, the
Upanisads may be said to have promoted what may be called a spiritual

13. Sankhdhar, M.M., The Concept of Welfare State, University of Delhi,

1974, p. 45.
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democracy. Undoubtedly, the Upanisads claim to be one of the primary sources

of ancient Indian polity and social regeneration.

The Upanisadic influence is found in the Sukraniti and more prominently

in the Kamandakaniti. Both the treatises have shown the influence of dharma and
righteous action on the part of the individual in his own station of life towards the
promotion of eternal happiness on earth apart from its impact in matters of state
and statecraft.

1.4.3 Epics
The two Epics, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, are replete with sound
political and economic theories for good government.

The Epics deal with the deeds of kings and heroes, descriptions of wars and
practical philosophy. While the contribution of the Vedas cannot be
overemphasized, the ideals enshrined therein have percolatd in a realistic manner
to the epics. In fact, the two Epics namely the Ramayan and the Mahabharata are
of seminal importance for the understanding of ancient Indian social and political
thought.

The Ramayana, which is the earlier of the two Epics, contains reference to
the principles of good government, diplomacy, war and peace. It contains the
manner in which the king should consult his ministers, learned men and the
principal officers of the army in formulating state policy on different matters. The
Ramayana gives a many sided picture of a perfect life. Inner perfection issuing out
in virtuous action which overcomes evil and transforms the evil-doer is Valmiki’s
main theme. In this Epic, stress is laid everywhere on the importance of moral
values.
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The Ramayana is not only a science of polity but also a science of ethics
expounding lofty ethical ideals. The importance of moral virtues - simple living,
modesty, restraint, obedience to elders, charity and humanity is fully stressed. The
picture drawn in the Ramayana of happiness, harmony and understanding in the
domestic and social spheres are ideal. It provides detailed guidelines for rulers, for
statesmen, for law-givers and for persons belonging to the four stages of life.

The Mahabharata as an Epic is a class by itself. It represents a whole

literature rather than a single homogenous work, it constitutes a veritable treasure-
house of Indian lore, both secular and religious. No other single work gives an
insight into the innermost depths of the soul of the people as it does. It is a "song
of victory". It depicts the deeds of heroism in a war fought to avenge insult to
womanhood and to maintain the just rights of dynasty that extended the heritage
of Bharata and knit together the North, South, East and West of India into one
empire.

The Mahabharata is an authoritative book of law, morality and social and

political philosophy, laying down the rules for the attainment of Dharma, Artha
and Kama, the "Trivarga" and also showing the way to liberation, expounding the
highest religious philosophy of India.

One important aspect of this great Epic, is that it is also an illuminating

treatise on the science of polity. Into the mouth of the Kuru Patriarch, Bhisma, the
author Vyasa puts the traditional theories about such matters as the origin of the
state and its organic constituents, the divine source of monarchy, the duties of the
ruler, his equipment and his responsibilities towards his subjects and the
constitutional features of non-monarchical government.
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1.4.4 Arthasastra
Arthasastra is regarded as the earliest extant treatise on the science of
polity. It is written by Kautilya who is also known as Visnugupta and Chanakya.
It is singularly the most important text on ancient Indian political thought.

Kautilya’s Arthasastra is a text on administration, polity, on the art and

science of the government. It is a total theoretical framework of the Indian way
of life and in that framework we come across the details of administration, the
principles of governance, the art of politics, human nature and politics,
psychological tendencies, economic forces, sociological factors, historical
examples, philosophical postulates and speculative aspects.

Kautilya’s Arthasastra dealt with kingship, ministers and their role, foreign
policy, war and peace etc. It is an illustration of a scientific approach to the
problem of politics, satisfying all the requirements and criteria of an exact science
kautilya’s idea of statecraft must have developed over a long period; the subject
must have been assiduously studied even before Kautilya’s time. In fact, Kautilya
does not take the credit of being a pioneer in developing a science of polity; rather
he is frank enough to make an unequivocal admission of having collected and
complied the then prevalent theories of earlier masters, presenting at the same
time his own views on them from the standpoint of political and social
expediencies.

As a chief inspiring source of ancient Indian political thought, the

Arthasastra is an omnibus volume of instruction not only for the guidances of
princes, and would be administrators but for every political ruler in the World. By
its comprehensive character and eminent inductiveness it surpassed all previous
works and itself became unsurpassable as an authoritative pattern; later periods
produced only commentaries or annotations on it.
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Kamandakaniti is nothing but a treatise based on Kautilya’s Arthasastra.

Sukraniti is also another ancient Indian polity which emphasizes on virtue, wealth,
and salvation for the ruler to be obtained by him by adhering to niti. Sukra
emphasized that niti is as indispensable for a king as valour and prowess. All­
round prosperity flourishes where niti and power go together.14

1.4.5 Dharmasutras
There is some debate and controversy as regards the chronology of
Dharmasutras and Dharmasastras. It is however held by a few western scholars
that the dhamasustras are earlier than and perhaps the sources of the material
codes.

The various dharmasustras such as Gautama Dharmasutra, Apastamba,

Dharmasutra, Baudhayana, Dharmasutra, and Harita Dharmasutra have highlighted
the importance of dharma as a way of life, a guiding principle towards the path
of progress and prosperity for the individual as well as the society. The problems
of dharma as law and justice, a theory of government and political obligation, civil
rights of social classes and the relations between temporal and spiritual authorities
find reference in this Dharmasutra literature.

The Dharmasutras lay down the norm of political organizations, stressing

mainly on a monarchy. The sutra emphasizes the reciprocal duties of the king and
the people and prescribe the principal function of the king as protection of the
subjects and promotion of their all-round welfare, and this function entitles him
to receive taxes, more or less in the nature of pay.15 References to the hereditary
nature of succession to kingship, and references to the special status of Brahmanas

14. Nagar, Vandana, Kingship in the Sukraniti, Puspa Prakashan, Delhi, 1985,
p.5.

15. The History and Culture of Indian People, Vol.I. (Bharatiya Vidya
Bhawan, Bombay, 1971, p.488.
 19

in upholding the moral order of society and in exercising effective curbs on the
king’s conduct are among the highlights of the Sutra literature.

Thus, the Dharmasutra literature is quite useful as a valuable reference to

develop a comparative analysis between the ideas of Sukra and those of
Kamandaka on Indian polity. The ideas in Sukraniti is a curious blend of moral
values and Machiavellian realism which could be made use of as per the
requirement of the situation by the King.

The impact of Sutra literature could not be fully found out in the Sukraniti
as it is seen in the Kamandaka nitisara. So far as Kamandakaniti was concerned,
it is said that he does not take into account the actual reality that the ruler faces
in the field of administration of the state. It is believed that Kamandaka is indebted
to Kautilya for his ideas. But Kautilya was not so much moral in his approach to
politics as referred to in his book "Arthasastra". He was rather more practical
relating to die actual reality of life in a state, such as administration, control of
trade and commerce and the administration of justice. On the contrary,
Kamandaka does not go beyond the general maxims. On the contrary, Kamandaka
does not go beyond the general maxims of niti. His book often delights in didactic
maxims, which appear to be absent in Kautilya’s treatise. Yet, it remains a source
to know the rudiments of ancient Indian political theory. Therefore, it can
probably be assumed that Kamandaka was more pro-sutra literature than Sukra.

1.4.6 Dharmasastra (Smritis)

The Dharmasastras as a class of literature represent the efforts of successive
generations to adjust human behaviour to a just and valid form. The Dharmaastras
make it significant that religion in India is not a dogma, but a working hypothesis
of human conduct adapted to different stages of spiritual developments and
different conditions of life.
 20

A floating mass of rules and regulations were codified by the Dharmaastra

writers as an all-round guide for the life and conduct of the people. Polity or
Rajadharma formed a legitimate part of their writings, since upon the king’s rule
and administration depended the smooth functioning of the social organisation.

The oldest Dharmasastra is the Manava-Dharmasastra which is also known

as Manusmriti. P.V. Kane maintains that the Manusmriti must have been
composed in the 1st Century B.C.16. U.N. Ghosal and others place it between
200 B.C. and 200 A.D.17 It is a book of twelve chapters in "anustubha"
(Sixteen-syllabled) cuplets. Chapter VII, VIII and part of Chapter IX of this book
deal with Rajadharma. This portion outlines the qualities and duties of rulers and
describes the principles of statecraft in peace and war.

The Rajadharma chapters of the Manusmriti might have formed an

independent treatise on polity. However, they are a significant contribution to the
subject and regarded as the most authoritative source of laws, both public and
private. Apart from Manusmriti, Yajnavalkya Smriti, Nardada Smriti, Parasara
smriti, Brhaspati smriti and Katyayana smriti which have also included the concept
of divinity of kingship, the king’s authority over all classes of subject except the
Brahmanas and the questions of internal administration etc. almost echoed the
Manusmriti with minor modifications. The authors of these smritis demonstrate
their ingenuity in matters relating to Rajadharma, law and administration of
justice.

The influence of smriti literature is remarkably present in the Sukraniti and

Kamandakaniti. Both the treatises have exhaustively analyzed the nature of

16. Kane, P.V., A History of Dharmasastra, Bhandarkar Oriental Research

Institute, Poona, 1946, [Link], p.192.

17. Ghosal, U.N., A History of Indian Political Ideas, Oxford University

Press, Madras, 1959, p. 264.
 21

kingship, authority and obligation of the ruler, administration of law and justice,
well being of the subjects, and above all the ethical code of conduct to be adhered
to by all for a righteous and virtuous living towards all round progress and
prosperity.

1.4.7 Puranas
The Puranas were written with the object of popularizing the truths taught
in the Vedas presenting them in relation to the ideas and ideals represented by
specific personages which could be learnt from events of their lives. The real
function of the Puranas is to explain, illustrate and amplify the Vedas. The term
Purana means that which has come down from the ancient part yet possessing
ideas which are always new having some contemporary or eternal relevance.

Dharma or duty in common parlance forms the basis of Puranic ethics, and
it embrances all those factors which contribute to the progress and well being of
the individual, society and world at large. These factors include both the
possession of virtues (gunas) and the proper discharge of one’s duty (Karma). The
Puranas recognize two types of Dharma, such as Sadharana (generic) and Visesa
(specific). The latter is also known as Svadharma i.e. the duty of one’s self.

The Puranas constitute a great repository of ancient Indian philosophical

wisdom. It teaches mankind that the individual who forms an integral part of
human society owes a duty to himself and to those around him. The society rises
or sinks with him. Hence, in the interest of the society, he must raise himself to
his fullest stature. It is both individual and social duty which is based on the key
note of dharma. Dharma contributes to the preservation, progress and welfare of
human society and in a wider sense, of the whole World.

The scheme of Varna and Asrama Dharmas which the Puranas unanimously
advocate, is based up on the duties of the individuals of a class and has as its aim
 22

the efficiency, welfare, smooth working and material and spiritual perfection of
the society as a whole. Puranic ethics is intensely practical and utilitarian which
guides the individual to have his normal life of duties and responsibilities and yet
be in peace and contentment. The Puranas also include topics relating to social
organizations based on Vamasrama dharma. It also dealt with Rajadharma, King’s
duties and responsibilities, science of war and the use of arms and weapons and
concluding of peace. The later developments like smritis and the Mahabharata
were also largely influenced by the maxims of Purana literature.

The impact and Puranas is clearly perceptible in the Sukraniti and

Kamandakaniti. As regards Kingship and its duties both Sukra and Kamandaka
have focussed upon a code of ethics prescribed in the Puranas which should
regulate the conduct of the ruler. This code of ethics if followed by a ruler will
contribute towards happiness and well-being of his subjects. The code of ethics
followed by king Ramachandra of Ayodhya is of superb quality and exemplary in
character. In fact the exemplary conduct of the king and the various functions
which he discharges based on ethical values contribute to the happenings and well
being of his subjects and to the peace and prosperity of his kingdom. Thus the
Puranas constitute an important source which shape and mould the nature of the
State and the character of the Kingship.

1.4.8 Nitisastra
In the post-Kautilya age the influence of Arthasastra was so pervasive that
barring Manusmiti and the Mahabharata, there exists no other work on polity or
economics which was not substantially shaped by its ideas. The later Niti-texts
which devote their attention on legal and judicial procedures and theories of polity
and economics were also greatly influenced by Arthasastra. They can claim hardly
any thing which is original or new. Thus the Arthasastra predominantly shaped
and moulded the later thinking and writings on State and polity.
 23

The most important political treatise of this age is Kamandaka’s Nitisastra

which is said to fall between 400 and 600 A.D. Here also, many scholars differ
with its date and historicity. The treatise is based mainly on Kautilya’s
Arthasastra. The book is composed in an Epic form and old commentators regard
it as a great Kavya.

In the various chapters of the text, Kamandaka is very much indebted to

Kautilya for his ideas. However, he has omitted almost everything concerning
administration, control of trade and commerce, and the administration of justice
which are of incomparable value in people’s eyes.

Kamandaka does not go beyond the general maxims of niti. His book often
delights in didactic maxims, which appear to be absent in Kautilya’s treatise. Yet,
it remains a source to know the keynotes of ancient Indian political theory.

The Jain scholar Somadevasuri had written during 959 A.D. "The
Nitivakyamritam" or the nectar of the science of polity which is an interesting
treatise on statecraft. This text was based on the Kautilyan tradition. The author
took more interest in moral maxims than in administrative and military matters for
he was anxious to teach all rulers how they should behave with their people.

Another source for deciphering political knowledge of ancient India happens

to be Rajanitiratnakara by Chandesvara. Though a minor work, which according
to Beni Prasad, was written in the fourteenth century A.D., it has been argued that
the book is based more on Dahrmasastra than on Arthasastra. However, the author
appears to have been well acquainted with the latter too.

The Sukrantitisara, which is attributed to the sage Sukracharya, the

preceptor of the dailyas (demons), is another source among the Sanskrit works on
ancient Indian Political speculation Sukra emphasized upon niti to be followed by
 24

the ruler in each and every step of his action so that he would attain all - round
prosperity in his kingdom. Sukra ascribes to the king in state - affairs on morality
and virtues as the careful feature of the ruler’s life and his insistence on people’s
will as the best gurantee for the maintenance, progress and prosperity of the
State.18

In the words of many Indologists, the Sukranitisara is a more important

work than kamandakaniti. Indeed after Somadevasuri, Sukraniti is the most
remarkable Hindu treatise on government.

The author of Sukraniti repeats with slight modifications of the

Mahabharata versions of the history of Dandaniti which goes back to the beginning
of creation. He conceives politics as an art with a definite object. Dandaniti aims
at the promotion of general prosperity and conduces to the stability of the world.
It is particularly useful to rulers, so a king, who neglects it, sinks like a leaky
vessel.

Apart from dealing with Kingship, duties and responsibilities of the ruler,
diplomacy and the broad principles of statecraft, the Sukranitisara also provides
a standard for human behaviour. Sukra enlarges the concept of Nitisara to include
conduct on all levels, in all situations; it is as ethical as political, in nature. In this
work attributed to Sukra, Nitisara emerges as the comprehensive and integrating

science that the founders of modem sociology conceived their study to be. But
Sukra’s predecessors had paved the way.19

18. Nagar, Vandana, Op. cit, p.6.

19. Charles Drekmeiere, Kingship and Community in Early India, Oxford

University Press, Bombay, 1962, p.221.
 25

Politics or the art of government in Sukra’s system is not an independent

branch of study, but it emerged in a science of general morals. Since the rules of
kingly policy are conceived to be the core of the Nitisara, it follows that its
primary use must be for the king. Since the Nitisara is the root of virtue, wealth
and desire and bestows salvation, it should be constantly studied with care by the
king. Through its knowledge, kings and others conquer their foes, and gratify their
subjects.20 Sukra says "Other sastras treat of certain specialized departments of
human activity, whereas Nitisastra is useful to all and in all cases is the means for
the preservation of human society. The two primary functions of the king are
protection of subject and constant punishment of offenders, these two cannot be
achieved without Nitisastra. In order that the whole state may be productive of
good and comforts to the people without effort, Niti must be maintained and
followed by the king for his own interests. Of the prince who does not follow Niti
the kingdom is weakened; the army is inefficient and the civil service is
disorganized, other elements of the state get topsy turvey, in short, evils prevail
everywhere.21

But Sukra must not be imagined to be an advocate only of the rules of Niti.
He is a realist and he also realizes the significance of power in the political and
economic processes. Hence, Sukra recommends that both power and niti must be
adhered to by the king for the sake of realizing the universal prosperity.
Therefore, Sukra says that the king should apply Danda for the sake of
maximizing intelligence, power, vigour and niti.22

20. Ghosal, U.N., Op cit., p.248-250.

21. Nagar, Vandana, Op cit., p.6.

22. Verma, V.P., Studies in the Hindu Political Thought and its Metaphysical
Foundation (Delhi, Motilal Banarasidasa, 3rd Revised and enlarged
edition), p.103.
 26

In giving importance to ethics in the realm of politics, Sukra stands as a

dynamic author with a vision of his own reflecting on problems of human
character and politics. Much of the rudiments of ancient Indian Political theory
can be traced in this treatise.

The complexities of the various literatures discussed above more or less

highlight the ethical code of conduct for acceptance of the ruler in his own way
of life towards all round progress and prosperity of his kingdom. Ethics was
given prime importance by all the ancient literatures that relate to politics of the
state and administration of the subjects by the ruler within it. There is no doubt
about the general maxim that ancient Indian Polity was enriched in high standard
of morality to make the individual man in his own station of life truthful, virtuous,
duty bound and compassionate for the well - being of his fellowmen with whom
he lives in the society. The entire responsibility is to be borne by the ruler like a
boatman controlling the steering to arrive at the end; i.e. the happiness and
prosperity of the people within the state.

Apart from the aforesaid literature in the realm of ancient Indian ancient
thought, the following works on ancient Indian Polity which are systematically
arranged in the book "Tradition and Innovation in Indian Political Thought :
Politics and Vision" written by Prof. B.N. Ray which deserve mention and
appreciation of Sukra and Kamandaka’s concept of State. They are discussed
below.

It is said that systematic study of India’s past, on the part of both the
western as well as Indian scholars began after the revolt of 1857. In fact, a noted
western scholar Max Muller in 1859 did not take a favourable view on political
speculation in ancient India at that time and said that "the Indians are a nation of
Phlosophers and Indian intellect is lacking in political and material speculation and
that the Indians never had a sense of nationality.
 27

However, the nationalist movement during the last three decades of the 19th
century gave a strong challenge to the w estem ideas and thereafter progressive
researh works were done on ancient Indian polity.

P.N. Banerjea, in his book "Public Administration in Ancient India",

published in 1916 has given emphasis on the working of constitutional monarch
and republics in ancient India.

B.K. Sarkar, in his book "Political Institutions and Theories of Hindus"

published in 1922 had rejected the western scholars’ view on ancient Indian
thinking like Max Muller, Janet, Smith, Willoughby and said that "Hindu States
were throughly secular".

U.N. Ghoshal, in his book "A History of Hindu Political Theories",

published in 1923 had rejected teh western comment on ancient Indian political
tradition. He says that the idea of state was very much there in ancient Indian.

K.P. Jayaswal’s book on "Hindu Polity" published in the year 1924 is

considered as the greatest work on ancient Indian polity. This book is the outcome
of his articles written between 1912 and 1915. For the first time, K.P. Jayaswal
had shown he importance of republics in ancient Indian history.

In 1925, in his lectures "Some Aspects of Ancient Hindu Polity", D.R.

Bhandarkar had also refuted the western scholar’s view on ancient Indian political
thought.

In the year 1927, V.R.R. Dikshitar in his book "Hindu Administrative

Institutions" had claimed that Hindu Polity is almost modem. It had a strong
nationalist feeling in the country. He quotes the famous verse "Janani
Janmabhumisca Suargadapi gariyasi". At the end of his work he repeats the robust
 28

optimism of Jayaswal that "the golden age of Hindu polity lies not in the pas but
in the future".

In 1927, N.C. Bandopadhyaya brought out two books such as

"Development of Hindu Polity and Political Theories" and "Kautilya". In these
two books, he pointed out the excellence of ancient Indian polity.

Beni Prasad, in his two books "State in Ancient India" and "Government
in Ancient India" had explained the superior position of ancient Indian Polity and
said that there was no aristocracy in ancient Indian institutions in the Greek and
Roman sense.

R.S. Sharma’s book "Asects of Political Ideas and Institutions in Ancient

India" published in 1959 had also a significant contribution to the ancient Indian
polity.

1.5 Method
A comparative study between Sukra and Kamandaka entails primarily an
analytical method of study. It is analytical because it aims at making critical
enquiries about the various political ideas reflected in both the texts. The
Sukraniti, as an ancient Sanskrit text, is a handbook on the various aspects of
political know hows within a state. While analyzing kingship, Sukra’s idea of a
king resembles the modern concept of the state. The state as a beneficiary
institution is meant for fulfilling the various interests of the people. This idea of
state was also explained by Sukra in his treatise.

The origin of kingship, the authority and obligation of the ruler, collection
of taxes, expansion of the empire, application of punishment (Danda) to the
sinners and rewarding the virtuous persons, diplomacy, war and peace etc. are the
various comer stones of the state explained by both Sukra and Kamandaka. No
doubt, the two treatises have quite a good number of similarities between them on
the explanation of the various aspects of the state. The two authors are more
 29

analytical in their bent of mind than speculative in nature. Both the them have
argued from various aspects, that unless the ruler is virtuous in his own way of
life and prescribe the same for his subjects, the very purpose of the kingship will
be lost; i.e. the happiness and prosperity of the subjects. Therefore, it is a matter
of fact that both Sukra and Kamandaka have made their queries about the nature
of State, principles and functions of State, authority and obligation of the ruler.

Our purpose of making the research on the concept of State in Sukra and
Kamandaka is to make a detailed and analytical study of their concept of State and
to identify and locate the universal principles which have eternal value for the
students of politics.

Though the method is mainly analytical, the historical method is immensely

useful for it. While making a critical study of both the texts, it is highly necessary
to make a historical study of the ancient Indian resources found in the Sanaskrit
literature. Without making a historical study of the earlier resources in ancient
Indian polity, the very purpose of the study made in course of this research will
not be complete. Moreover, these two texts are based on the various ancient
Indian Sanskrit texts and are therefore, made authentic on the science of polity.
The western scholars on the idea of state, have not strikingly differed from the
ideas found in the Sukraniti and the Kamandakaniti. There is a justification here
in giving importance to the method being historical because without making a
detailed study of the historical data and events found in the various ancient Indian
texts, it would not be easy to make a t rue, proper and objective study of both
Sukraniti and Kamandakaniti. Therefore, to some extent the method of study is
historical. But basically the objective of study of this research is based on
analytical method.

The method of study is analytical as it critically examines the legendary

figures like Sukra and Kamandaka in respect of their ideas on kingship,
administration of State, maintaining cordiality and friendly relationship with the
neighbouring nations, prescribing the moral standards for the people and finally
 30

adhering to Danda (punishment) as a divine principle to establish justice in the

society and carry out the Godly intention on Earth i.e. peace and prosperity of the
subjects by the ruler in the State. From all these aspects, the method of study
ought to be analytical. There is absolutely no doubt that the objectivity of the
research of these two ancient texts should be more fundamental and useful for the
present day study of politics of the State.

While making a critical study of both Sukra and Kamandaka, it is found

that the modem idea of a State, its functions and end, all are well explained in the
two ancient Indian texts. The authors of the two texts were well versed in polity
and administration of the State. How human nature necessitates the emergence of
the State and demanded its various functions for the all - round progress and
prosperity of the people as a whole, was well analyzed in both the texts. It would
be more appropriate if the ancient notion of polity and administration would have
been given due consideration in course of the modem writings concerning the
concept of the State by the Western scholars. In course of the various chapters,
a detailed and critical study will be made relating to the ideas of Sukra and
Kamandaka about the State. The explanations of the various chapters will demand
an analytical method which would satisfy the urge of the various queries about the
modem idea of the State.

The analytical method will not only examine the ancient view of the State
and Government as explained by the two authors but also identify the universal
and eternal principles inherent in ancient polity i.e. good administration based on
virtue, loyalty, justice and morality of the ruler over the subjects and on the
modem view of the State.

To sum up, our study of the State in Sukra and Kamandaka lies in a
comparative assessment of the views of the two authors. Moreover, how the two
authors differ to a great extent from the modem writers on the State will also be
examined.