❖ A common set of rules

Categories of Standards

[Link] facto - By convention or by fact

❖ These are the standards that are followed without any formal plan or approval by any
organization.

❖ They have come into existence due to traditions or facts.

❖ For example, the HTTP had started as a de facto standard.

[Link] jure - By Law or by Government

❖ These standards are the ones which have been adopted through legislation by any officially
recognized standards organization.

❖ Most of the communication standards that are used today are de jure standards.

Some of the noted standards organizations are

❖ International Standards Organization (ISO)

❖ International Telecommunication Union (ITU)

❖ Institute of Electronics and Electrical Engineers (IEEE)

❖ American National Standards Institute (ANSI)

❖ Internet Research Task Force (IETF)

❖ Electronic Industries Association (EIA)

Switching

A network is a set of connected devices. Whenever we have multiple devices, we have the
problem of how to connect them to make one-to-one communication possible. One
solution is to make a point-to-point connection between each pair of devices (a mesh
topology) or between a central device and every other device (a star topology). These
methods, however, are impractical and wasteful when applied to very large networks.
The number and length of the links require too much infrastructure to be cost-
efficient, and the majority of those links would be idle most of the time.
A better solution is switching. A switched network consists of a series of
interlinked nodes, called switches. Switches are devices capable of creating temporary
connections between two or more devices linked to the switch. In a switched network,
some of these nodes are connected to the end systems (computers or telephones, for
example). Others are used only for routing. Figure shows a switched network.
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 Figure 1.26 switched network
We can then divide today's networks into three broad categories: circuit- switched
networks, packet-switched networks, and message-switched. Packet- switched networks
can further be divided into two subcategories-virtual-circuit networks and datagram
networks as shown in Figure.

Figure 1.27 Types of switched network

CIRCUIT-SWITCHED NETWORKS

A circuit-switched network consists of a set of switches connected by physical

links. A connection between two stations is a dedicated path made of one or more links.
However, each connection uses only one dedicated channel on each link. Each link is
normally divided into n channels by using FDM or TDM. In circuit switching, the
resources need to be reserved during the setup phase; the resources remain dedicated for
the entire duration of data transfer until the teardown phase
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 Figure 1.28 circuit-switched network
Three Phases
The actual communication in a circuit-switched network requires three phases: connection
setup, data transfer, and connection teardown.

Setup Phase
Before the two parties (or multiple parties in a conference call) can communicate, a
dedicated circuit (combination of channels in links) needs to be established. Connection
setup means creating dedicated channels between the switches. For example, in Figure,
when system A needs to connect to system M, it sends a setup request that includes the
address of system M, to switch I. Switch I finds a channel between itself and switch IV
that can be dedicated for this purpose. Switch I then sends the request to switch IV, which
finds a
dedicated channel between itself and switch III. Switch III informs system M of system
A's intention at this time.
In the next step to making a connection, an acknowledgment from system M
needs to be sent in the opposite direction to system A. Only after system A receives
this acknowledgment is the connection established.
Data Transfer Phase
After the establishment of the dedicated circuit (channels), the two parties can transfer
data.
Teardown Phase
When one of the parties needs to disconnect, a signal is sent to each switch to release the
resources.
Efficiency
It can be argued that circuit-switched networks are not as efficient as the other two types
of networks because resources are allocated during the entire duration of the connection.
These resources are unavailable to other connections.
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Delay
Although a circuit-switched network normally has low efficiency, the delay in this type of
network is minimal. During data transfer the data are not delayed at each switch; the
resources are allocated for the duration of the connection.
The total delay is due to the time needed to create the connection, transfer data, and
disconnect the circuit.
Switching at the physical layer in the traditional telephone network uses the circuit-
switching

Packet Switched Networks

Packet switched networks are connectionless networks. Here, the message is divided and grouped
into a number of units called packets that are individually routed from the source to the destination

Figure 1.29 packet -switched network

➢ The packet switching is a switching technique in which the message is sent in one go, but
it is divided into smaller pieces, and they are sent individually.
➢ The message splits into smaller pieces known as packets and packets are given a unique
number to identify their order at the receiving end.
➢ Every packet contains some information in its headers such as source address, destination
address and sequence number.
➢ Packets will travel across the network, taking the shortest path as possible.
➢ All the packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.
➢ If any packet is missing or corrupted, then the message will be sent to resend the message.
➢ If the correct order of the packets is reached, then the acknowledgment message will be
➢ sent

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Approaches Of Packet Switching

➢ There are two approaches to Packet Switching:

➢ Datagram Packet switching:
➢ It is a packet switching technology in which packet is known as a datagram, is considered
as an independent entity. Each packet contains the information about the destination and
switch uses this information to forward the packet to the correct destination.
➢ The packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.
➢ In Datagram Packet Switching technique, the path is not fixed.
➢ Intermediate nodes take the routing decisions to forward the packets.
➢ Datagram Packet Switching is also known as connectionless switching.

DATAGRAM NETWORKS
In a packet-switched network, there is no resource reservation; resources are allocated on
demand. The allocation is done on a first come, first-served basis. When a switch receives
a packet, no matter what is the source or destination, the packet must wait if there are
other packets being processed. This lack of reservation may create delay. For example, if
we do not have a reservation at a restaurant, we might have to wait.
In a datagram network, each packet is treated independently of all others. Packets
in this approach are referred to as datagrams. Datagram switching is normally done at the
network layer.
Figure shows how the datagram approach is used to deliver four packets from
station A to station X. The switches in a datagram network are traditionally referred to as
routers.
The datagram networks are sometimes referred to as connectionless networks.
The term connectionless here means that the switch (packet switch) does not keep
information about the connection state. There are no setup or teardown phases. Each
packet is treated the same by a switch regardless of its source or destination.
A switch in a datagram network uses a routing table that is based on the destination
address. The destination address in the header of a packet in a datagram network remains
the same during the entire journey of the packet.

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 Figure 1.30 datagram networks
Efficiency
The efficiency of a datagram network is better than that of a circuit-switched network;
resources are allocated only when there are packets to be transferred. Delay
There may be greater delay in a datagram network than in a virtual-circuit network.
Although there are no setup and teardown phases, each packet may experience a wait at a
switch before it is forwarded. In addition, since not all packets in a message necessarily
travel through the same switches, the delay is not uniform for the packets of a message.
Switching in the Internet is done by using the datagram approach to packet
switching at the network layer.

VIRTUAL-CIRCUIT NETWORKS

A virtual-circuit network is a cross between a circuit-switched network and a datagram network. It

has some characteristics of both.

Figure 1.31 virtual-circuit network

1. As in a circuit-switched network, there are setup and teardown phases in addition to the
data transfer phase.
2. Resources can be allocated during the setup phase, as in a circuit-switched network, or
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on demand, as in a datagram network.
3. As in a datagram network, data are packetized and each packet carries an address in the
header. However, the address in the header has local jurisdiction (it defines what should be
the next switch and the channel on which the packet is being carried), not end-to-end
jurisdiction.
4. As in a circuit-switched network, all packets follow the same path established during
the connection.
5. A virtual-circuit network is normally implemented in the data link layer, while a circuit-
switched network is implemented in the physical layer and a datagram network in the
network layer.
Addressing
In a virtual-circuit network, two types of addressing are involved: global and local
(virtual-circuit identifier).
Global Addressing

A source or a destination needs to have a global address-an address that can be unique in
the scope of the network.

Virtual-Circuit Identifier
The identifier that is actually used for data transfer is called the virtual-circuit identifier
(VCI). A VCI, unlike a global address, is a small number that has only switch scope; it is
used by a frame between two switches. When a frame arrives at a switch, it has a VCI;
when it leaves, it has a different VCl.
Figure shows how the VCI in a data frame changes from one switch to another. Note that a
VCI does not need to be a large number since each switch can use its own unique set of
VCls.

Figure 1.32 Virtual-Circuit Identifier

Three Phases
Three phases in a virtual-circuit network: setup, data transfer, and teardown. We first
discuss the data transfer phase, which is more straightforward; we then talk about the
setup and teardown phases.

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Data Transfer Phase

Figure 1.33 Data Transfer Phase

To transfer a frame from a source to its destination, all switches need to have a
table entry for this virtual circuit. The table, in its simplest form, has four columns.
We show later how the switches make their table entries, but for the moment
we assume that each switch has a table with entries for all active virtual circuits.
Figure shows such a switch and its corresponding table.
Figure shows a frame arriving at port 1 with a VCI of 14. When the frame arrives,
the switch looks in its table to find port 1 and a VCI of 14. When it is found, the switch
knows to change the VCI to 22 and send out the frame from port 3.
Figure shows how a frame from source A reaches destination B and how its VCI changes
during the trip.

Figure 1.34 VCI changes during the trip

Each switch changes the VCI and routes the frame.

The data transfer phase is active until the source sends all its frames to the
destination. The procedure at the switch is the same for each frame of a message. The
process creates a virtual circuit, not a real circuit, between the source and destination.

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Setup Phase
In the setup phase, a switch creates an entry for a virtual circuit. For example, suppose
source A needs to create a virtual circuit to B. Two steps are required: the setup request
and the acknowledgment.
Setup Request A setup request frame is sent from the source to the destination. Figure
shows the process.

Figure 1.35 Setup Phase

Source A sends a setup frame to switch 1.

a. Switch 1 receives the setup request frame. It knows that a frame going from A
to B goes out through port 3. For the moment, assume that it knows the output port.
The switch creates an entry in its table for this virtual circuit, but it is only able to fill
three of the four columns. The switch assigns the incoming port (1) and chooses an
available incoming VCI (14) and the outgoing port (3). It does not yet know the
outgoing VCI, which will be found during the acknowledgment step. The switch then
forwards the frame through port 3 to switch 2.
b. Switch 2 receives the setup request frame. The same events happen here as at
switch 1; three columns of the table are completed: in this case, incoming port (l),
incoming VCI (66), and outgoing port (2).
c. Switch 3 receives the setup request frame. Again, three columns are completed:
incoming port (2), incoming VCI (22), and outgoing port (3).
d. Destination B receives the setup frame, and if it is ready to receive frames from A,
it assigns a VCI to the incoming frames that come from A, in this case 77. This VCI lets the
destination know that the frames come from A, and not other sources.
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Acknowledgment A special frame, called the acknowledgment frame, completes the
entries in the switching tables.
Figure shows the process.

Figure 1.36 Acknowledgment Phase

a. The destination sends an acknowledgment to switch 3. The acknowledgment

carries the global source and destination addresses so the switch knows which entry in
the table is to be completed. The frame also carries VCI 77, chosen by the destination
as the incoming VCI for frames from A. Switch 3 uses this VCI to complete the
outgoing VCI column for this entry. Note that 77 is the incoming VCI for destination
B, but the outgoing VCI for switch 3.
b. Switch 3 sends an acknowledgment to switch 2 that contains its incoming VCI
in the table, chosen in the previous step. Switch 2 uses this as the outgoing VCI in the
table.
c. Switch 2 sends an acknowledgment to switch 1 that contains its incoming VCI in
the table, chosen in the previous step. Switch 1 uses this as the outgoing VCI in the
table.
d. Finally switch 1 sends an acknowledgment to source A that contains its incoming
VCI in the table, chosen in the previous step.
e. The source uses this as the outgoing VCI for the data frames to be sent to destination
B.

Teardown Phase
In this phase, source A, after sending all frames to B, sends a special frame called a
teardown request. Destination B responds with a teardown confirmation frame. All
switches delete the corresponding entry from their tables.

Efficiency
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In virtual-circuit switching, all packets belonging to the same source and destination travel
the same path; but the packets may arrive at the destination with different delays if
resource allocation is on demand.
Delay
In a virtual-circuit network, there is a one-time delay for setup and a one-time delay for
teardown. If resources are allocated during the setup phase, there is no wait time for
individual packets. Figure shows the delay for a packet traveling through two switches in a
virtual-circuit network

Figure 1.37 virtual-circuit network delay

Switching at the data link layer in a switched WAN is normally implemented by using
virtual-circuit techniques.

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Comparison Table 1.1

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Comparison Table 1.2

34
Comparison Table 1.3

35