CHAPTER ONE

ERROR IN ELECTRONIC MEASUREMENT

1.2 Introduction
Error refers to the deviation of a reading (or set of readings) from the expected truevalue of the
measuredvariable. When we make measurements, some errors are unavoidable because ideally,
nomeasurement can yield the exact value of any quantity. The difference between the true value
and the result obtained through measurement is the error. Error in electronic measurement is
therefore defined as the algebraic difference between the result of the measurement and the true
value of the quantity being measured.

Error = measured value – true value

The error is said to be positive if the measured value is greater than the true value and negative if
it is less than the true value. The percentage error is the error expressed as a percentage of the
true value. It is given by:

% Error = 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟
× 100%
𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

In electronic measurements, errors may come up from different sources and are usually classified
as being either of the following:
1. Gross Error,
2. Systematic Error,
3. Random Error.

1.1.1 Gross Error: This is an error in electronic measurement that occurs due to bad
measurement practices. It is largely a human factor error, which may be caused for example,due
to Parallax Error (or Misreading Error) thathappens when taking a reading from a scale at a
wrong angle instead of looking directly over the scale as illustrated in Figure 1.1. It can be seen
that only the reading taken directly over the scale is correct (at a position where the pointer and
its shadow on the mirror are aligned); whereas readings from the remaining positions are wrong.
Another example of Gross Error is when an analogue multimeter or similar type of instrument is
used to take measurement without ‘zeroing’ the instrument from the beginning, resulting to a
measured value that is higher or lower than the actual worth of the variable. Other examples of
Gross Error include:Calculations Error, as a result of wrong calculations of measurement results,
Incorrect Instrument Error and Incorrect Adjustment [Link] there may be other
examples of Gross Error in electronicmeasurement, it suffices to state that in order to eliminate
them; some good measurement practices must be applied.

Fig 1.1 Parallax error: Caused Due to Taking Measurement from Wrong Viewing Angle
Source: [Link]

1.1.2 Systematic Errors:This error occursas a result of some defects or ageing of the measuring
instruments (Instrumental Error) and sometimes due to external conditions (Environmental
Error) affecting the measurement. For instance, when the damping or control spring of a moving
coil meter starts losing its elastic properties due to excessive use, measurements performed using
such instruments will constitute some Systemic Error. Furthermore, the manufacturers of the
same type of instruments has to take into cognisance the fact that some changes in the length of
springs
used in the instrument occur (linear expansion) due to excessive variation of temperature at a
wide range that can cause Environmental (SystemicError). This is why instruments used on
Ships, Aircrafts or Spacecrafts that change locations (environments) within a short period of time
are manufactured with greater accuracy using special materials that are flexible enough to
withstand sudden environmental changes (example, a spring whose temperature coefficient is
very low) to avoid ‘Temperature Error’. Similarly, Systemic Error may occur as theresult of lack
of proper maintenance of electronic measuring instruments (i.e greasing, oiling of moving parts
and so on).

Hysteresis Error, which is another type of Systemic Error,occurs due to hysteresis effect on the
reading of the instrument, especially the moving iron instruments. When the current
isdecreasing, the flux produced will not decrease suddenly. Due to this, the meter reads a
highervalue of current. Also, when the current increases the meter reads a lower value of
[Link] produces error in deflection. This error can be eliminated by using soft iron parts
with narrow hysteresis loop so that the demagnetization takes place very [Link] will be
discussed much better in the subsequent chapters.

Eddy Current Error is another form of Systemic Error. The eddy currents induced in the moving
iron affect the deflection of the pointer. This error can be reduced by increasing the resistance of
the iron. Stray Field Error also, being another type of Instrumental Error, occurs when the
operating field of a moving iron instrument is weak causing the effect of stray field to be more
than necessary. Due to this, error is produced in deflection. However, this can be eliminated by
shielding the parts of the instrument.

Loading Error is another example of Instrumental Error. When a measuring instrument is

connected to the system to be measured, some loading effects happen due to the power sharing
of the two systems. The Loading Error for an ammeter and voltmeter can be calculated as
follows, respectively.

Δ𝐼 𝑟 Δ𝑉 𝘙𝑡ℎ
= and =
𝐼 𝑟+𝘙𝑛 𝑉 𝑟+ 𝘙𝑡ℎ
Where ‘r’ is the internal resistance of the meter,Rn is the Norton and Rth Thevenin equivalent
resistance of the circuit. Since the internal resistance of analogue voltmeter change with the

selected range, instead of the internal resistance usually the sensitivity of the instrument, ‘S’
(input resistance-per-volt), is given such as “20kΩ/V”. This value is indicated on the panel of the

instrument. If the range of the voltmeter is set to ‘VR’, then the internal resistance of analogue
voltmeter is:

r =VR ×S

The internal resistance of a digital voltmeter is usually constant and greater than 1MΩ. The
internal resistance of an ammeter changes with the range of the instrument and should be
obtained from the user’s manual of the instrument.

The relative worst case or Limiting Error of a measurement is the sum of the Loading Error and
Instrument (accuracy) Error assuming other errors are negligible, which is generally given by:

| |
ΔX
worst case
= |ΔX| Instrument
+ |ΔX| Loading
X X X

Where ‘X’ is the variable being measured.

Usually, Instrumental Error is given in the user’s manual of the instrument for maximum reading
as:

Δ𝑉
£o =
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝗑

Where £o is the error of the instrument. Error of the analogue instrument is usually expressed as
the class of the instrument. The class of the instrument shows the relative error for full-scale
deflection (maximum reading).

1.1.3 Random Error: This type of error exists due to the possibility of uncertainties associated
with randomization of measurements. As stated earlier, efforts to reduce other types of error
make us to repeat measurements as much as possible resulting to Random Error. In other words,
if we perform many measurements and every time we obtain a slightly different result (with
difference exceeding the assumed value) we can conclude that there is a random error in that
measurement.

The percentage of the entire measurement, which will fall within a specificrange of values, can
be predicted quite accurately from the statistical analysis of the [Link] ideal conditions, a
very large number of measurements will provide a distribution ofreadings, with the greatest
number of readings approximately equal to the actual value. Oneither side of the actual value, the
frequency of readings will decrease, producing anapproximately normal [Link]
mean of the number of measurements(n) is the best estimate of the true value (or accuracy). It
can beformulated as:
X1 + X2 + X3 + ⋯ + X𝑛
̅=
X
𝑛
∑𝑛 Xi
i=1
=
𝑛
Where ‘n’ is the number of measurements and ‘Xi’ is the reading of the‘i’th’ measurement.

Standard Deviation or root-mean-square deviation of the n measurementswill further give the

best estimateof the precision formulated as:

𝑑2 + 𝑑2 + 𝑑2 + … + 𝑑2𝑛
𝑑=√ 1 2 3
𝑛−1

Where ‘n’ is the number of measurement, ‘di’ is the deviation from the mean.

From the ongoing,it is important to take note of all thatwas mentionedincluding the stated
formulas so as to improve accuracy and precision in electronic measurements. It should also be
noted that the manufacturers of electronic instruments are doing their best to reduce errors in
measurement. Therefore, what remains is to complement such efforts by using the right
electronic measuring instruments for the right job. We can see that errors in electronic
measurements occur largely due to inefficiency of the users to follow the appropriate guidelines,
using the right electronic measuring instruments such as Multimeters and so on.
 CHAPTER TWO MULTIMETERS

2.1 Features of Multimeters

Multimeter is one of the basic electronic measuring instruments that are popularly used in
electronic workshops, laboratories, houses and industries. We have two types of multimeters, the
analogue and the digital. The term, ‘digital’ applies, not only to an instrument’s digital readout,
but also to the technology it employs. For a long time, analogue instruments have reached their
limits. Meaning, the accuracy of their movements and an ease of reading have become about as
good as they can possibly get. Digital instruments have now overtaken analogue instruments in
terms of their robustness, potential accuracy, and the elimination of reading errors, such as
Parallax Error, Zero Errors and so on (as previously discussed in chapter one of this book). Some
digital multimeters can also measure additional quantities, such as Frequency, Capacitance,
Temperature, etc. Therefore, because of improved precision, ease of use and simpler user
interface, the digital multimeters have now largely replaced their analogue counterparts.
However, for scholarly purpose, it is essential to include the principle of operation and practical
applications of both type multimeters. After all, the analogue multimeters are cheaper in the
market, making them more popular among students and practicing technicians. That is why in
this book, both types of multimeter (analogues and digital) are discussed comprehensively.

As shown in Figure 2.1, analogue and digital multimeters come with two test-leads (usually
black and red) that are equipped with metallic probes. The black test lead is for ground
connection while the red is for positive connection to the multimeter box. The black test-lead is
inserted into the common terminal (socket), and the red lead inserted into the appropriate
function terminal: current (amperes), current (milli/microamperes), or
voltage/[Link], digital multimeters have a display panel(readout) where the
digital output of the measured variable is shown. The analogue multimeter on the other hand, has
some graduating scales with a precision pointer on the same type of panel. Multimeters are also
featured with a rotary ‘selector’ switch that is meant for the selection of the type of variable to be
tested (voltage, resistance, current, AC, DC and so on) as well as the range of the variable.
However, this selection is automatic in some new models of multimeters.

Other features of multimeters include a rotating knob for the adjustment of the precision pointer
to zero ohms before use (on analogue meters without an auto-zero capability). Similarly, some
digital meters have a button that, when pressed, sets the meter to [Link], most multimeters
use an internal fuse to protect themselves against excessive voltage or current. Also, except for
really old analogue models that only test voltage or current, all multimeters are equipped with a
battery of one type or another. The most convenient multimeters use a standard-size battery, such
as a 9-volt or AA cell. Pocket meters typically use a coin-type battery. Figure 2.1 shows the rest
of the features of both analogue and digital multimeters.
 Figure 2.1: Features of Analogue and Digital Multimeters
Source: [Link]

The comparison of digital multimeters with analogue multimeters can be summarized as follows:
1. Analogue multimeters have several scales for measuring current, voltage, and resistance
and, often, separate scales for measuring AC and DC. They are, therefore, relatively
difficult to read, require practice and are prone to mistakes by the user: such as reading
the wrong scale or misinterpreting a particular reading.
2. Digital multimeters, on the other hand, have a single, simple, digital, readout (often with
automatic range adjustment) which is very easy to read with virtually no chance of
making a reading error.
3. Analogue multimeters movements are relatively delicate and must be treated with care to
prevent them from becoming miscalibrated or their movement damaged.
4. Digital multimeters, however, are tough and robust, and are far less likely to become
damaged. Even relatively-severe external physical damage is unlikely to affect their
accuracy.
 5. Analogue multimeters require a careful set-up routine prior to taking a measurement, as
will be discussed later in this chapter.
6. Digital multimeters on the other hand must be set to the appropriate function setting
(current, voltage, or resistance), but many types will then automatically select the most
appropriate range within that function, will compensate for an aging battery, and all will
automatically self-zero when set to measure resistance.
7. Analogue multimeters require a battery only to measure resistance, and will read current
and voltage without a battery.
8. Digital multimeters, on the other hand, require a battery for all their functions, and will
not operate at all once its battery is exhausted.

2.2 Principles of Operation of Multimeters

It is not only the features of the two types of multimeters that differ but also their principles of
operation. The analogue multimeters differ remarkably from their digital counterpart; therefore,

V
Voltmeter

W1 A W2
Ammeter +

-
Ohmmeter
R

Figure 2.2: Block Diagram of a Simplified Analogue Multimeter

As shown in the block diagram, two different band switches W1 and W2 can be used to select the
desired meter (physically this function is done by a single wiper switch). Additional provision
for individual range selection of Ohms, Amperes and Volts is also available.

However, as stated earlier, the block diagram presented in Figure 2.2 is only a simplification of
the principles of operation of analogue multimeters. Some multimeters can test other electronic
components such as diodes, transistors, capacitors and so on, hence the need for a more complex
arrangement of additional elements. Generally, analogue multimeters constitute the following
components:

a. A balanced bridge DC amplifier and Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC)

indicating instrument;
b. A rectifier to convert AC to a equivalent DC quantity;
c. A range Switch that act as attenuator to limit the value of input voltage to the desired
value;
d. A function switch to select various measurement functions of the instrument like current,
voltage and resistance;
e. Internal battery to additional circuitry for the measurement of resistance.

Figure 2.2 shows the schematic diagram of a balanced differential amplifier circuit that utilizes
two Field Effect Transistors (FETs) that are properly matched to measure electrical quantities at
different input ranges. The two identical FETs F1 and F2 form the upper arm of the bridge circuit
so that increase in the current of one FET is offset by corresponding decrease in the source
current of the other. The drain resistors R1 and R2, together with the ZERO adjustment resistor
R3 form the offer arm of the circuit. The meter movement is connected across the drain terminals
of the FETs.
The circuit is balanced under zero-input-voltage condition provided the two FETs remain
identical (balanced). Under that condition, there would be no current flowing through the meter
 VDD

600 KF1 F2

120K M

Input R1 R2

60K

R3

RANGE ZERO

Figure 2.3: The Schematic Diagram of a Balanced Differential Amplifier Circuitry

Source: Sawhney (2010)
2.2.2 The Principles of Operation of a Digital Multimeter
Essentially, all digital multimeters are voltmeters which can also be used to measure current by
analyzing the voltage drop produced across an internal standard resistor. There are three major
component circuits to a digital voltmeter: a pulse generator, and an electronic switch (termed a
‘gate’) which controls the flow of pulses to a counter circuit as illustrated in Figure 2.4.

U2

U1

t1 t2

Gate control signal

Pulse Gate 0.0000009
Generator
Circuit (digital
Readout)

gggu pulse

Generator Control switch Counter circuit

Figure 2.4: Block of the Digital Multimeter

The electronic switch is controlled by a ‘ramp generator’, which is a circuit that produces a linear
signal, called a ‘ramp’. The ramp illustrated in the above circuit is a gross oversimplification, but
is descriptive of the general principle involved.

When small external (test) voltage, U1, is applied to the ramp, the resulting control signal closes
the electronic switch for the period (0 – t1). If a larger external voltage, U2, is applied to the
ramp, then the control signal keeps the electronic switch closed for a longer time, (0 –t2). In
other words, the time for which the electronic switch is held closed is proportional to the
magnitude of the external test voltage applied to the ramp. The longer the electronic switch is
held closed, the greater the number of pulses allowed to pass through to the counter circuit. The
number of pulses counted, therefore, is proportional to the external test voltage applied to the
ramp generator circuit. All that is remaining now is to calibrate the counter circuit’s digital
readout to indicate the voltage rather than the number of pulses counted.

The ammeter function of a digital multimeter works in slightly-different way. By passing the
external test current through a very accurate resistor (built into the meter), the resulting voltage-
drop across that resistor will be proportional to that current, and this voltage drop is then applied
to the ramp generator –from then on, the ammeter works just like the voltmeter already
described, except that it is then calibrated in terms of amperes, milli-amperes, or micro-amperes,
rather than in volts, milli-volts, or micro-volts. Of course, the operating principle of an actual
digital multimeter is significantly more complicated than this explanation as it must be capable
of measuring DC and AC voltages and currents over a wide-range of values, as well as
measuring resistance and, in some cases, other quantities too.

2.3 Practical Applications of Multimeters

Having learnt the features and principle of operation of analog and digital multimeters in the
previous sections of this chapter, we are now ready for its basic practical applications to
measures voltage, current and resistance. Furthermore, elaborate multimeters, such as the Fluke 78, or
Fluke 88 can be used to check other things such as frequency, transistors and diode tests, and even
test some simple logic circuits.

There’s a limit to what a multimeter can be used to measure (maximumrange). These days, most
multimeters have more-or-less the samemaximum range for voltage, current, and resistance.
Multimeters that have thefollowing maximum ratings are more popular in electronic workshops:
DC voltswithin the range of about 1000 V; AC volts within 500 V; DC current within 200 mA
(milliamperes); and resistance of Resistance: 2 MΩ (two megohms, or 2 million ohms) range.

Most analog and digital multimeters, require manual selectionof therange before the meter can
make an accurate [Link] example, if you’re measuring the voltage of a 15 volt output
of a circuit, the range should be set closest to, or above 15 volts. This means 20 or 50 volt range
should be selected using the selector switch. Thereafter, the voltage is read from the proper scale.
This means if the range selected was 50 volts for instance, the voltage measured must be read on
the 50 volt scale. Otherwise, there would be inaccurate [Link], if the meter is equipped
with an auto-range capability, there is no need to select the range manually as stated earlier. This
feature makes them inherentlyeasier to use and a little less prone to error.

2.3.1 Multimeter Serviceability Status Test

Before using a multimeter for any electronic measurement, it is essential to verify its
serviceability status. The following steps are guidelines for preparing both types of multimeters
for use:

1. Make sure the two metallic probes of the test-leads are clean and proceed to the next step;
2. Using the ‘power’ and rotary ‘selector’ switches respectively, turn on the multimeter and
dial it to ‘ohms’ setting (lowest range);
3. Using the ‘zeroing’ knob, adjust the meter reading to zero;
4. If the multimeter is not auto-range, set it to low ohms;
 5. Insert the two test-lead into their appropriate places in the meter box, that is, black lead to
the common (‘com’) and red to the ‘ohms’ sockets.
6. Touch the two metallic probes of the test-leads together to observe a ‘zero’ ohms reading
(or very close to zero) on the meter panel, if not, set the pointer to zero position using the
adjustment knob provided;
7. Alternatively, if a sound capability is featured on the meter, a beeping sound should be
heard when the above (1 – 5) procedure is repeated one step after the other (except that
the selector switch nowhas to be set to the speaker sign ‘BUZZ’ on the meter).
8. This proves that both the meter and the test-leads are ok and ready for use.

2.3.2 Using Multimeter to Measure Electric Current

Electric current measurements are rarely taken in an electronic circuit, however most
multimeters have DC current ranges such as 0.5mA, 50mA, 500mA and 10Amp (via the extra
banana socket) and some meters have AC current ranges. Measuring the current of a circuit is
very essential. If the normal current is measured, a high or low current can let you know if the
circuit is overloaded or not fully operational. To measure the amount of electric current passing
through an electronic component such as a resistor, inductor, transistor or a capacitor, follow the
procedure stated below:

1. Carry out the serviceability status test stated in 2.3.1 above;

2. Reposition the red test-lead by inserting it into the current socket (mA or 10A) depending
on the perceived range of the current to be measured (the black test-lead should remain in
the ‘com’ socket);
3. Set the selector switch to ‘current’ position at the appropriate ‘range’ to be measured (Ac
or DC, example, 10-20mA, 200mA and so on);
4. Break the circuit at the point where the current is to be measured and insert the metallic
probes (red test lead to positive polarity of the circuit being tested and black into the
negative)as shown in Figure 2.5;
5. For analogue multimeters, the reading should be taken on the DCV A scale (Figure 2.6)
and then converted using the reference table in Table 2.1, while the digital type will
display the value in digits as explained earlier.
 6. Return the selector switch to either ‘off’ or ‘ohms’ position after taking the reading and
turn the meter off.

2.3333

Black
Black Red

+ -

Battery

Figure 2.5: Circuit arrangement for the measurement of electric current using a multimeter

Note:
Remember that by setting the selector switch to ‘current’ position as explained in (3) above, the
multimeter is converted to an Ammeter with a very low internal resistance to allow smooth
passage of current when connected in series with the load as shown in Figure 2.5. It is therefore
strictly prohibited to connect multimeters under this (current) selection in parallel with the load.
This will definitely result to short circuit thereby resulting to damages in the instrument and
consequent injuries to the user.

Figure 2.6: Analogue Multimeter Reading Scale (Source: YX-360 Owner’s Manual)

Table 2.1: Analogue Multimeter Reference Table

 Test Range Position Scale to Read Multiplier
DC Volt DC:
0.1v B 10 × 0.01
0.5v B 50 × 0.01
10v B 10 × 0.01
50v B 50 × 1
250v B 250 × 1
1000v B 10 × 100
AC Volt AC:
10v C 10 × 1
50v B 50 × 1
250v B 250 × 1
1000v B 10 × 100
DC DC:
Current 50uA B 50 × 1
2.55mA B 250 × 0.01
25mA B 250 × 0.1
0.25A B 250 × 0.001
10A B 10 × 1
Resistance × 1 A × 1
× 10 A × 10
× 100 A × 100
× 1K A × 1000
× 10K A × 10000
Decibel AC:
10V G ×1
50V G × 1+14dB
250V G × 1+28dB
ICEO ×1 E × 1 (for big TR)
×10 E × 1 (for small TR)
hFE ×10 D ×1
Diode ×1K E µA × 10
F ×1
×10 E mA × 1
F ×1
×1 E mA × 10
F × 10
Source: YX-360 Owner’s Manual

2.3.3 Using Multimeter to Measure Voltage

To measure the amount of potential difference (voltage) across an electronic component such as
a resistor, diode, transistor or a capacitor, follow the procedure stated below:

1. Carry out the serviceability status test stated in 2.3.1 above;

2. Reposition the red test-lead by inserting it into the volts socket (In some meters, it’s the
same with the ‘ohm’ socket). The black test-lead should remain in the ‘com’ socket;
3. Set the selector switch to ‘volt’ position at the appropriate ‘range’ to be measured (AC or
DC, example, 20V-700V and so on);
 4. Place the metallic probes across the component to be tested (In parallel) as shown in
Figure 2.7, regardless of the polarities;
5. For analogue multimeters, the reading should be taken on the ACV scale with reference
to Table 2.1, while the digital type will display the value in digits as explained earlier.
6. Return the selector switch to either ‘off’ or ‘ohms’ position after taking the reading and
turn the meter off.

0.7777

Red Black

+ -

Figure 2.7: Circuit Arrangement for the Measurement of Potential Difference Using a
Multimeter

Note:
1. Here, as the multimeter is selected to function like a voltmeter, it must draw some
operational current from the circuit under test. Therefore, to avoid loading effect by the
multimeter (power sharing effect), which could lead to inaccurate result, multimeters are
equipped with a very high internal resistance to minimize the operating current (usually
many mega ohms).
2. The best electronic instruments to be used for proper circuit analysis are the oscilloscopes
and logic probes (to be discussed in the subsequent chapters of this book). Multimeters
could also be used for simple voltage analysis. Hence, to measure supply or output
 voltage across the entire circuit or a component within the circuit (example, a 555 IC
timer) the black test-lead should touch the ‘earth’ of the electronic circuit while the red
should touch the V-out of the component (a) or the circuit (b) respectively as shown in
Figure 2.8.

Red Test-Lead (a)

+ 15 V

555 V-out Red Test-Lead (b)

TIMER

Black Test-Lead

Figure 2.8: Voltage Test Performed in a 555 IC Timer Circuit

2.3.4 Using Multimeter to Measure Resistance

To measure resistance of an electronic circuit or component in a circuit, the following steps will
serve as guidelines:

1. Repeat the usual serviceability status test of the meter as outlined in 2.3.1 above;
2. Since the meter is to be used for resistance measurement, the rotary ‘selector’ switch
should be left at ‘ohms’ setting;
3. Using the ‘zeroing’ knob, adjust the meter reading to zero;
4. If the multimeter is not auto-range, set it to the required resistance to be measured
(example, 200 ohms, 2K, 20K, 200K and so on);
 5. The two test-leads should also remain where they are since we are still measuring
resistance (i.e black lead to the common ‘com’ and red to the ‘ohms’ sockets).
6. Remove the component whose resistance is to be measured (from the circuit) and touch
the two metallic probes of the test-leads to both ends of the component as shown in
Figure 2.9;
7. Analogue meters have different scales for voltage, current and resistance. The ‘A’ scale
that features the Ohms sign should be read in the present case (refer to Table 2.1).
8. Take the reading. A bad resistor can be either completely open inside, in which case you
mayget a reading of infinite ohms, or it can be shorted out, in which case you geta
reading of zero [Link] testing a resistor, ensure that the marked value corresponds
with the reading providedby the meter. The reading should fall within the tolerance range
of the [Link] example, if the resistor has a tolerance of 20 percent and is marked as
1K ohms,acceptable test readings fall in the range of 800 to 1,000 ohms. Toleranceis 20
percent of 1,000, or 200 [Link] the resistor has a tolerance of one percent (you call these
low-tolerance resistors or precision resistors), acceptable test readings fall in the range of
990 to 1,010 ohms. Tolerance is one percent of 1,000, or 10 ohms.

Red Test-Lead to the meter

Black Test-Lead to the meter

Figure 2.9: Measuring the Resistance of a Circuit Component

Note:
1. Never connect a multimeter to a live circuit when it is set at ‘ohms’ selection;
 2. The resistance of the component can still be measured while still connected in the circuit.
However, in this case, beware of measuring the resistance of a component that is
connected in parallel with another component.

2.3.5 Using Multimeter to Test Wires or Cables for Continuity

Continuity tests on electric wires indicate whether a circuit (or a circuit component such as fuse
or switch) is broken or not. We can describe continuitymost clearly using a wire as the circuit:
• A short circuit shows that your circuit has continuity (not broken) between two points of
the same wire. The meter shows this state as zero (or very close to zero) ohms.
• An open circuit means that your circuit doesn’t have continuity (broken). The meter
shows this situation as infinite ohms, which means so many ohms that the meter can’t
register.
When testing a cable with many wires, multimeters can be used to find out whether any of the
individual wires are touching each other. When this situation happens, the wires short out. If a
short happens, your circuit [Link] following procedure should serve as a guideline for
continuity test:

1. By now it is assumed that the reader is used to the usual serviceability status test of the
meter described in 2.3.1 above;
2. Connect the multimeter probes to either end of the wire as shown in Figure 2.9 (a);
3. A reading of zero ohms, or very low ohms should be seen on the meter. A reading of
more than just a few ohms indicates a possible open circuit.

To test for a short between two or more different wires that shouldn’t be electrically connected,
proceed as follows:

1. Connect the multimeter probes to any exposed conductor ofthe two wires as shown in
Figure 2.10 (b);
2. A reading other than zero ohms indicates open circuit, which means the wires are actually
not electrically connected. If the readingshows zero or very low ohms, it indicates a
possible short circuit.
 Probe Multimeter (b)

Single Wire

Probe

Multimeter (b)
Two wires

Black & Red Probes

Figure 2.10:Continuity Test on (a) Single Wire and (b) Two or More Wires
Note:
When testing two different wires that shouldn’t be electrically connected in a circuit, a reading of
infinite ohms shows an open circuit. In ideal situation this is true butpractically, it is not always
the case. The reason is that even though the wires may not be directly joined, they’re both
connected to the circuit. This connection, whatever it is, may show a certain resistance when
tested on the multimeter. So when looking for shorts across wires, one should not be too worried
if one gets a reading other than infinite ohms.

2.3.5 Using Multimeter to Test a Capacitor

There are multimeters that are featured with a provision for testing capacitor. These types of
mutimeters are very easy to use. However, the good news is that even ordinary multimeters
without this feature can be used for the same purpose. There are three major tests one can use a
mutimeter to do on the capacitor. The first is to test an open circuit within the capacitor (When it
is damaged), the second is to short circuit and the third is to determine the value of the capacitor
itself that is above 1 micro farad. To accomplish these tests using ordinary multimeter, proceed
as follows:

1. Before testing, use an insulated bleeder jumper (Figure 2.11) to short out the terminals of
the capacitor. A bleeder jumper is simply a wire with a 1 or 2 mega ohm resistor
attached. The resistor prevents the capacitor from being shorted out, which makes it
unusable. This step discharges the capacitor. You need to short out the terminalsbecause
large capacitors can retain a charge for long periods of time,even after you remove
power;
2. Set the meter to Ohms;
3. Touch the meter probes to the terminals of the capacitor;
4. Wait a second or two and then note the reading. A good capacitor shows a reading of
infinity when you get to this step.A reading of zero may mean that the capacitor has
shorted out. Aleaky capacitor, one that is losing its ability to hold its charge, gives
anohms reading that is somewhere between infinity and [Link] you are working with a
polarized capacitor, connect the black lead to the –ve terminal of the capacitor and the red
lead to the + ve terminal. For unpolarized capacitors, it doesn’t matter how you connect
the leads.

2M Insulated Bleeder Jumper

Figure 2.11: Insulated Bleeder Jumper Connected to a Capacitor

Note:
1. This test does not tell if the capacitor is open, which can happen if the component
becomes structurally damaged inside or if its dielectric (insulating material) dries out or
leaks. An open capacitor will read infinite ohms. For a conclusive test, use a multimete
 with a capacitor-testing function. If your multimeter has a capacitor-testing feature, by all
means use it rather than the method given above.
2. Be sure to observe proper polarity when connecting the capacitor to the test points on the
meter. You get another advantage by using a multimeter with a capacitor testing feature
because the meter displays the value of the capacitor. You may find this measurement
handy if you need to determine whether a capacitor falls within the tolerance range for
your circuit. This feature also helps to verify the value markings on the component
because not all capacitors follow the industry standard identification schemes.

2.3.6 Using Multimerter to Test Diode

Analogue multimeter without diode measuring capability can be used to test diodes for short and
open circuit as well as forward current using the resistance setting. Most of the digital meters can
be used directly to measure diodes. For clarity, these two methods will be discussed separately
under this section.

Using an Analogue Multimeter:

The following test procedure can be carried out using ‘ordinary’ multimeters:
1. As usual, test the multimeter’s integrity by conducting the serviceability status test
described in 2.3.1 above;
2. Set the meter to the diode-check position (×1K for 0-150uA; ×10 for 0-15mA; ×1 for 0-
150mA test);
3. Apply the test probes of the meter to the diode. Observe proper polarity: For ‘IF’
(forward current), touch the blacktest lead to the positive terminal of the diode, and the
red test lead to the negative terminal(the cathode has a stripe so that you can identify it);
4. For IR (reverse current) test, reverse the connections. Remember to avoid touching the test
probes with your fingers;
5. Read IF or IR on the L1 scale provided (Figure 2.6);
6. Read the linear (forward) voltage of the diode on the LV scale while testing IF or IR.

Using a Digital Multimeter:

The following procedure is for digital multimeters that have feature for testing diodes:
1. Set the meter to the diode-check setting (×1K for 0-150uA; ×10 for 0-15mA; ×1 for 0-
150mA test);
 Apply the test probes of the meter to the diode. Observe proper polarity: For ‘IF’
(forward current), touch the blacktest lead to the positive terminal of the diode, and the
red test lead to the negative terminal(the cathode has a stripe so that you can identify it);
2. For IR (reverse current) test, reverse the connections. Remember to avoid touching the test
probes with your fingers;
3. Observe the reading of about 0.5 V (which is about the required voltage to turn on a good
diode). An over range reading (when the digital read out shows maximum range)
indicates a bad (open-circuited) diode. Also, a zero reading means bad but short-
circuited diode.
4. Reverse the probes and test again. In this case, an over range (infinity) reading means
Good, while a zero reading still means bad diode.

2.3.7 Using Multimeter to Identify and Test Transistors

For the fact that some transistors are manufactured without clear description of the type (PNP or
NPN), it is essential to discuss some clues on the use of multimeters to identify a transistor
before testing it. Therefore, the first part of this section will take care of the processes involved
in identifying an unknown transistor while the second part will deal with the procedure for
testing the transistor.

Identifying an Unknown Bipolar Transistor

To identify an unknown bipolar transistor using analogue multimeter, proceed as follows:
1. Set the meter to ‘X10’ setting;
2. Try touching the black test lead on one pin and the red lead to the remaining two pins of
the unknown transistor in turn. At the point when the meter pointer swings to nearly full
scale, you have an NPN transistor. The black probe is on the Base (B).
3. If the red touches a pin and the black test lead produces a swing on touching either of the
remaining pins, you have a PNP transistor. The red probe is on the Base (B), as shown in
Figure 2.12;
 Figure 2.12: Identifying the Bases (B) of NPN and PNP Bipolar Transistors
Source: Colins (2012)

4. Having identified the Base (B), to get the Collector (C) and Emitter (E), set the meter to
‘X10K’ setting;
5. For the NPN transistor, place the two leads of the meter on the remaining transistor pins
and press hard as shown in Figure 2.13, the pointer will swing to almost full scale;

Figure 2.13: Identifying the Collector and Emitter of an NPN transistor

Source: Colins (2012)

6. Alternatively, for a PNP transistor, place the two leads of the meter on the remaining two
pins of the transistor and press hard, the pointer will swing to almost full scale as shown
in Figure 2.14.
 Figure 2.14: Identifying the Collector and Emitter of a PNP transistor
Source: Colins (2012)

Testing a Typical Transistor

Figure 2.15(a) and (b) shows a typical bipolar transistor. For leakage current (ICEO) test proceed
as follows:
1. Plug the test leads into the + and – COM sockets;
2. Set the range selector to ×10 (15mA) for small size transistor, or to ×1 (150mA) for a big
size transistor;
3. Adjust the zero Ohm knob to set the pointer to zero position of the Ohm scale (A in
Figure 2.6);
4. Connect the transistor with the tester: for NPN transistor, the black test lead is connected
to the Collector (C) of the transistor and the red test lead to the Emitter (E) of the
transistor. For PNP transistor, reverse the connection;
5. Read the ICEO range. If the pointer is not within the LEAK zone or the pointer moves up
near to the full scale, the transistor tested is not good, otherwise, it is a good transistor.

For hFE (DC amplification) test on bipolar transistors, do the following:

1. Dial the range selector to ×10;
2. Adjust the pointer using the zero Ohm ADJ knob to zero position;
3. Connect the transistor to the tester: For NPN transistor, (a) connect the ‘P’ terminal of the
meter to the emitter of the transistor with the hFE test lead, (b) plug the hFE connector
into the ‘N’ terminal and connect its red clip to the collector and black one to the base of
the transistor. For the PNP transistor, (a) connect the ‘N’ terminal of the meter to the
 emitter of the transistor, (b) plug the hFE connector into the ‘P’ terminal and connect the
clips in the same way as for NPN transistor connection;
4. Read the hFE scale. The value of the reading is IC/IB, which is the DC amplification
degree of the transistor tested.

C C

B B

E E
(a) (b)
Figure 2.15: A Typical Bipolar Transistor (a) with the Equivalent Diode Circuit (b)

Note:
1. Testing with a multimeter can permanently damage some types of transistors,especially
the FET (field effect transistor) [Link] use the above stated test procedure for
bipolar transistorsonly.
2. If your multimeter is equipped with a transistor-checking feature, use thatfeature rather
than the method given here. Consult the manualthat came with your meter for the exact
procedure because it varies fromone model to another.

2.3.7 Using Multimeter to Test Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)

A typical Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR), also referred to as thyristor in some literatures is
either an NPNP or PNPN type semiconductor with three terminals, which are: Anode, Cathode
and the Gate as illustrated in Figure 2.16. It requires a minimum current at the gate to keep it
turned on. That is why an SCR tester is recommended for the testing of the device. However,
some multimeters that can provide this current can be used to test an SCR when properly
utilized. To test an SCR using multimeters, the following guidelines can serve:
 1. Having ascertained the serviceability status of the meter, set it to diode testing setting;
2. Forward-bias the SCR with the meter by connecting the black lead to the anode and the
red lead to the cathode (because the +ve terminal of the meter battery is connected to the
–ve lead in most meters);
3. Immediately, touch the gate lead to the anode while the probes are still touching both
leads; this provides a small positive turn-on voltage to the gate;
4. Reverse-bias the SCR by alternating the positions of the leads as described in 2 above;
5. Measure the Anode-to-Cathode resistance in both forward and reverse directions; a good
SCR should measure near infinity in both directions.

Anode

Gate Cathode
Figure 2.16: A Typical Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)

Note:
When carrying out the above test, the meter impedance acts as the SCR load. Therefore,
on larger SCRs, it may not latch ON because the test current is not above the SCR
holding current.
From the ongoing, we can see how multimeters can be used to test so many components of
electronic circuit. Moreover, the use of multimeters is not only limited to component level
troubleshooting as it could also be used to read out different voltage levels in digital circuit.
However, this type of diagnosis is more accurate when we employ the use of Logic Probes
that will be discussed in the next chapter. This is because, with multimeters, one must pay
attention to the pointer or the digital read out at every instance of such measurement. But
with more versatile electronic measuring instruments such as Logic Probes, the testing of
logic circuits can be much easier.