Chapter 27 — Timber based materials: Sources, origins and properties Objectives * Understand the main processes involved in producing workable forms of timber including: conversion, seasoning and the creation of manufactured timbers * Be aware of sustainability and ethical factors in timber production and use '* Understand the advantages and disadvantages of manufactured board compared with natural wood Timber conversion After a tree is felled and cut into manageable lengths, it is then converted into planks at which point itis known as timber. Timber is supplied in two main types of finish: rough sawn or planed all round (PAR). Rough sawn timber has not been planed and is rough to the touch. Its often used for exterior tasks or where the finish is not important. PAR has a much smoother finish as it has been mechanically planed down on all sides. Itis used for furniture and internal features such as windows and doors. Finishes such as varnish or paint can be easily applied. Planed timber is less absorbent than rough sawn timber. CHAPTER 27 SOURCES, ORIGINS AND PROPERTIES 5B Timber is available in many different shapes and sizes, standardised to enable different varieties to be used together. This is covered in more detail in Chapter 28. Seasoning ‘Once timber is converted into a workable form, it is Seasoned in order to reduce the moisture content. Typically, a newly felled tree will have a moisture content of over 50% and is known as green timber. The moisture content needs to be reduced below 20% for most exterior applications, below 15% for interior work and below 10% for interior areas that are constantly heated. Uneven evaporation of the water content can cause some common faults to occur such as twisting, cupping and bowing which can render the timber useless for many tasks. If the end grain dries too quickly it can cause the plank to spit There are two methods of seasoning; air-drying or kiln-drying. Air dried timber is stacked so that air can circulate around the planks and evaporation can take place. It takes approximately one: year per 25mm of plank thickness to season and in the UK the moisture content typically reduces to around 18%. Kiln-dried timber can have a much lower moisture content and it is a much faster process, meaning the timber can be sold much sooner. It costs more than air drying, as heat and pressure is used, but no additional land is required to store the timber while seasoning takes place. Kiln dried timber is less prone to faults and the heat also kills off bacteria and insects that may attack the timber. Chapter 27 Timber based materials: Sources, origins and properties 147SECTION 5B TIMBER BASED MATERIALS 5B 148 Manufactured board Natural timber is combined with adhesive to make manufactured boards. They can be made from waste, low-grade and recycled timber and are usually produced in a pele brown natural finish. Each manufactured board is produced in a slightly different way; the two main processes used are lamination and compression. Piywood and blockboard use the lamination method where layers of wood are bonded together using an adhesive. Medium density fibreboard (MDF), chipboard, orientated strand board (OSB) and hardboard use the compression method where wood is shredded, chipped or pulped, then heated and compressed under high pressure, in most cases using adhesives to bond the particles together. Veneer Some manufactured boards are covered in a thin slice of natural timber called a veneer. These natural wood slices are taken from the trunk of a tree and are bonded to the surface of cheaper sheet materials. Veneers are commonly seen on medium density fibreboard (MDF) and plywood. ‘There are two methods of veneer production; rotary and knife cut. Rotational veneer production produces the longest sheets and involves rotating a whole tree trunk on an industrial machine similar to a wood turing lathe. It is a bit ike a huge pencil sharpener creating one long ribbon of veneer, ‘Thin strip of veneer > a a . - * *. Log Knife Rotary veneer method Section 68 Timber based materialsAdvantages and disadvantages of manufactured board Advantages Disadvantages * Available in large sheets, very stable which saves time and eneray joining narrow planks together * No defects such as warping, twisting, cupping and spitting which occur in natural wood, meaning less waste * They do not have knots or resin pockets which can be hard to work around, avoiding waste and protecting tools which can blunt easily * Smooth finish which requires very little preparation + Makes use of low grade, recycled and waste wood * Available in many different finishes, veneers and laminates © Adhesives used to bond the boards can contain hazerdous particles or VOCs * Machining and sanding some boards, especially MDF, causes very small particles of dust to be released, easily breathed in, even through a mask * Tools can blunt easily owing to the adhesives in the boards © Many traditional wood joints cannot be used effectively with manufactured boards * Edges can be hard to finish * Most boards are prone to absorb moisture: if not treated Additional common manufactured boards In addition to the list of natural timbers and manufactured boards in Chapter 15, it is worth knowing about the following: Name. Appearance | Image Characteristics [Uses Blockboard Attractive natural Stable, tough, | Furniture, doors, grain veneers relatively heavy, | shelving, indoor glued to strips of finishes well, —_| construction wooden blocks indoor use owing usually 25mm to adhesives wide used Hardboard ‘Mid to dark Flexibie in large | Furniture and brown, smooth sheets, even —_| picture frame one side, rough strength, easily | backings, internal texture on the damaged by | paneling reverse, no grain, water unless painted finishes treated, available inexoensive Oriented strand | Mid yellow to Rigid and even | Construction board / Stering | pale brown, strength in all_—_| hoarding, interior board textured natural directions, good | and exterior (0sB) wood shreds water resistance | house building ‘compressed and bonded Chapter 27 Timber based materials: Sources, origins and properties CHAPTER 27 SOURCES, ORIGINS AND PROPERTIES 5B 149SECTION 5B TIMBER BASED MATERIALS 5B 150 Additional softwoods Name Appearance _|Image Characteristics [Uses Redwood Pinkish brown Easy to work | Outdoor furniture, to deep reddish and machines _| beams, posts, brown, straight well, some rot | decking, veneers grain resistance ‘Cedar Reddish brown, Easy to work, | Outdoor furniture, with straight, fine, can blunt tools, | fences, cladding even grain. Very finishes well, _| for buildings, roof aromatic naturally resistant | shingles toot Sustainable timber production Wood is considered to be a sustainable product, as new trees can be grown to replace those used for timber and fuel. The main issue facing timber production is that in many parts of the world, itis being used at a far greater rate than itis being replanted. The result is an unsustainable supply of timber, which is frequently ilegally obtained. This is causing many problems to the land in the countries where it is happening. Some countries are suffering from desertification due to deforestation. This activity is also thought to be a contributing factor in global warming, To ensure that timber comes from a reputable source, itis vital to know ° the provenance of the wood. This means that the supplier or retailer should be able to prove that it has been sustainably harvested. This can ‘be very difficult to do, so there are organisations that make the process much easier, The Forest Stewardship Council (FSC®) and the Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification (PEFC™ are both dedicated to ensuring that timber supply is regulated. If a product is labelled as approved, the company selling it will need to have proved that the timber came from a properly managed forest. FSC and PEFC timber is readily available in the UK, Europe and a growing number of countries worldwide, Greenpeace actively promote the sustainable use and production of timber and a detailed report of woods to use and avoid can be found on their website [Link] Destroyed tropical Amazon rainforest in Brazil. Section 58 Timber based materChapter 28 — Working with timber based materials Objectives * Know and understand the commercial stock forms, types and sizes of timber based materials and components in order to calculate quantities * Be aware of school-based cutting, forming and processing techniques, tools and equipment Selecting suitable natural and manufactured timber Which type of timber-ased material to use for a product depends on a number of factors, including: © Aesthetics * Cost + Weight © Size of product * Size of material available + Desired properties ‘+ Where it will be used + Required finish + Workebilty © Stability + Availability of stock + How long itis to last Standard material stock forms, types and sizes Most wood-based material comes in a range of standard shapes and sizes. This enables materials to be more interchangeable, and the manufacturers of tools to be aware of the material they will need to cope with. When ordering material, you should ensure you have the correct, measurements to hand. Standard practice is to use length x width x thickness for planks and boards, and length x diameter for rods and dowels. Board and plank sizes * Manufactured boards come in a series of standard sizes. Thicknesses tend to start at 3mm 5B and 4mm. From 6mm thicknesses rise in 3mm steps to 9mm, 12mm and so on, CHAPTER 28 WORKING WITH TIMBER BASED MATERIALS Single veneer thicknesses vary from 0.4mm to 4.5mm but are commonly 1.5mm thick. ful size sheet of manufactured board is 240mm long by 1220mm wide (based on the old imperial size of 8 feet by 4 feet). Boards are commonly available in helt and quarter sheets and frequently smaller. Many DIY stores and timber suppliers offer a cutting service and will prepare the exact size needed, Plank widths are of standard sizes and generally increase in 25mm stages (again based on the imperial for 1 inch). A common size is SOmm x 25mm, used for frame and carcase ‘construction. 5omm x 25mm would be the size of the rough sawn version; however, if you ‘were to ask for it planed all round (PAR), it would measure approximately 45mm x 20mm as this would account for the material removed by the planing process. The PAR sizes will always be 2-8mm less per side in width and thickness than rough sawn, meaning around 5mm less width and 5mm less thickness will be available, This reduction needs to be ‘considered when designing, as it could lead to inaccurate construction sizes. * Plank lengths vary and can often be bought by the metre. Common lengths are 1.2m, 1.5m, 1.8m, 2.4m, 3m and 3.6m, normally increasing to a maximum of 4.8m. Chapter 28 Werking with timber based materials 151SECTION 58 TIMBER BASED MATERIALS 152 Dowels and mouldings Many specially shaped sections of wood are available and these are known as mouldings. The most common variety can be seen around door frames and is called architrave; you may also have noticed ornate skirting boards in older style houses which is another form of moulding, ‘Some modern mouldings are made from manufactured board such as MDF and can come pre- painted ~ however, the majority are made from different types of timber. Dowel rods are circular sections of timber that come in many different diameters. Some dowel is pre-cut and ridged for use in a dowelled Wood joint. Dowels and mouldings are machined! using industrial milling Po machines and routers. X Woodscrews To fx two pieces af wood together, woodscrews are used. They are available in many different lengths and diameters. Screws come with different driving methods, the most common being slotted, Philips and Pozidriv®, Allen key and Torx® drive are becoming more widely available and offer a more reliable connection when using powered screwdrivers, as they are less prone to slipping and result in fewer stripped heads. e6tee0@ Siotted Philips. Poziariv® = Allan ‘When connecting two pieces of timber together it is best to select a screw that has a shank so ‘hat it does not grip the first piece of timber and create a gap between the two separate pieces. First, a pilot hole of about the core diameter of the screw is drilled through both pieces of wood. Then the clearance hole is drilled through the top piece only, to at least the diameter of the shank, Clearance (or shank) hole Countersunk hole Drive siot Plot hole Shank Threads Finally, if using a countersunk screw, a countersunk hole should be drilled to the depth of the head of the screw, so the screw lies flush with the surface of the material. A countersink bit is used for this purpose. Section 58 Timber based mateNails and pins Nails and pins are threadless versions of screws and are either hammered into position or a powered nail gun can be used along with special cartridges of nails. They are generally used for permanently fixing wood together. Pins tend to be thinner than nails, have less of a pronounced head and are used to attach materials that have finer detail as the head is easily hidden below the surface. To attach two pieces of wood together, a method of skewing the nails or pins at an angle (known as ‘dovetail’ nailing) is ideally used, as it gains some mechanical advantage and reduces the chance of the joint working itself loose through vibration and pressure. Common types of nails and pins Round All-purpose nail Oval wire | Shaped nail \ wire nail | with a wide flat nail with small head, head, can be prevents wood galvanised for splitting, best exterior use for interior use Panel pin | Thin diameter Tack Sharp, short, with a discrete , wide head, Vez small head, pin used to attach punch used material such to set below as upholstery or surface carpets to wood Clout nail | Very wide Lost head | A thicker version head, often nail of a panel pin, galvanised, used where the used to attach head should not roofing felt and be visible. A pin plaster board punch is used to set down Knock-down fittings Flat-packed furniture relies almost entirely on different types of knock-down fittings (KDF). ‘These are a form of temporary fixing that joins two or occasionally three pieces of material together, normally via a screwing method. They provide a secure and tight joint (although not as rigid as a permanent joint), and they are easily dismantled for transportation or storage. You may have used these before or have identified them on furniture you have seen. Lf Connecting or block fiting Gross dowel fitting Cam tock fitting Chapter 28 Working with timber based materials CHAPTER 28 WORKING WITH TIMBER BASED MATERIALS a 153SECTION 58 TIMBER BASED MATERIALS 194 Hinges Hinges are used to attach doors, windows and other openings to frames and carcases. They can be made from many cifferent materials but most commonly are metal. Most varieties are made ‘from polished brass or steel and are often sold in pairs. Hinges need to be carefully aligned to ensure accurate operation. The process of rebating or recessing the hinge is used to ensure a flush fit between the frame and the door or window. Common types of hinge Name | Characteristics | Image Name | Characteristics [Image Butt hinge | Standard hinge Piano. Long butt style for doors and | 0 hinge hinge, cut to windows, needs required length, rebating to fit fine and close flush join possible G Flush Not as robust Concealed | Used in flat- «. hinge as a butt hinge, hinge packed furniture | wa. ses does not require and kitchens, AS rebating specialist jig needed to fit Butterfly | Decorative Tee hinge | Often galvanised, hinge version of the painted or black butt hinge, Japanned for used in cabinet outside use on making sheds and gates Shaping, processing and machining wood ‘A vast array of tools is available in workshops in order to help make the products we require. ‘Tools enable us to mark out materials, cut to them size, waste them (remove material), shape them and apply a finish. Drilling Driling @ hole into a piace of wood seems a simple task but there are a number of factors to consider. Selecting the correct type of drill bit is important so that the right amount of material is removed. Additionally, the correct speed is needed; large drill bits require a slower speed than smaller diameter bits to avoid overheating and potential scorching of the wood. The depth of cut needs to be considered as you may nat want to dil all the way through a piece of material, as does the feed rate which can put excessive strain on the drill and the drill bit fit is too fast. Aplar oll is good for accuracy and it is powerful enough to dil larger holes in thicker materials. A cordless drill is very adaptable and usually has variable speeds and a clutch which can help avoid overtightening of fixtures and fittings. Section 58 Timber based materialsCommon drill bits used with wood-based materials Name Characteristics [Image Name Characteristics | Image Wood drill | Designed to aril Hole saw | Used to out bit holes in wood, large holes, s flutes carry they can easily waste wood ‘overheat dus to away high peripheral speed Flat bit | Efficient way to make larger holes, removes waste efficiently, long shank for greater depth — Sas Countersink | Used to allow Forstner bit | Accurate hole bit ‘countersunk -f cutting bit, Twist dri | General purpose bit bit, also used on plastic and metal screw head to good for flat- be flush with the bottomed surface partial-thickness holes Cutting and sawing ‘Saws are used to cut materials and joints to size. The tenon saw, rip saw and cross-cut saw are 5B common hand saws that are used for cutting straight lines in wood. The tenon saw is used for cutting wood joints and for small section material. Rip and cross-cuts saws are used for cutting large panels. The coping saw enables curved lines to be followed. The band saw is powered and can be used for straight cuts and gentle curves through thick and thin material. CHAPTER 28 WORKING WITH TIMBER BASED MATERIALS The scroll saw is also a powered tool and is used to cut curved lines through thin material SS Tenon sew Coping saw Rip saw / Cross-cut saw Chapter 28 Working with timber based materials 155SECTION 5B TIMBER BASED MATERIALS 5B 156 Wasting by hand and abrading Using hand tools to accurately shape wood is a skil that is learned over many years. Accuracy is vital and mistakes are easy to make which can be costly. Practice is needed in order to achieve the quality that you need at GCSE level, therefore it is recommended that you use some scrap wood to become acquainted with the following tools frst; especially chisels. Planes can take some delicate setting up before they work correctly but it is worth taking time to ensure an even cut is made. Wasting tools Abrading tools Name | Characteristics | Image Name _| Characteristics | Image ‘Smoothing | Smoothing Rasp Like a file with lane plane removes very thin layers of wood, smooths and flattens along the grain. Ghisel | Diferent ‘ Surform | For fast removal versions used \ of material, very rough teeth for fast removal of material, different profiles available with a mallet to cheese grater- remove wood like blade is to form rebates sharp but brittle, and recesses different profiles available Sanding Sanding wood to give it a smooth finish can be performed with machines or by hand. A disc or belt sander Is best used for easy-to-reach sections that can be held safely, There are also cylindrical sanding machines called bobbin sanders which are useful for internal curves. ™ a ee Bobbin sander Hand sanding using glasspaper is best for hard-to-reach areas and it also allows you to apply the force where it is needed most, perhaps to remove scratches or a glue stain. Glasspaper comes in different grades; the grit density (measured in grit per square inch) determines how rough or smooth it is. 40 to 60 grit is very coarse and will scratch most materials, 600 grt is very smooth and has almost a polishing effect. Electric hand sanders are useful and some come with accessories for working on hard-to-reach areas, Section 68 Timber based materialsWood Turning ‘Wood lathes are used to turn bowls and spindles. The size of the material being turned is important; the speed needs to be reduced as the diameter of the object being tured gets larger. ‘A special set of chisels is used to shape the wood when turning. The most commonly used tools are the scraper, the gouge and the parting tool, CHAPTER 28 WORKING WITH TIMBER BASED MATERIALS Laminating Laminating involves bonding strips of material together in layers. It can be done with thick materials in order to create very strong structures which can be used as roofing beams and 5B bridge supports If thinner materials are used for laminating, the curves made can be quite complex and have reasonably tight radii. The process involves layering the material with adhesive and holding it in the chosen position using a former or jig and pressure through clamps or by using a vacuum. See Chapter 20. Flexi-ply is often used for larnination as it is very workable and can make a robust product with a high quality finish. Bending Bending natural wood into omate shapes and curves can be achieved by soaking it in water until it softens. A thin branch on a young tree will bend without snapping. This is because of the high moisture content in green wood. Soaking the wood is a way of increasing the moisture content temporarily while it is bent and shaped. The most effective way to soften wood is by steaming it for around one hour per 26mm of thickness. A steamer box can be used to speed up the process. The thinner the wood being bent, the tighter the radius that can be achieved. The wet or steamed wood needs to be bent around a former, then clamped into position (the same as the laminating process) and left to set or Cool for up to an hour, It will then take a few days to dry out, depending on the thickness of the material used. The best results are obtained by using oak, hickory, elm, walnut and ash. Generally softwoods and tropical hardwoods do not bend as well Chapter 28 Working with timber based materials 157SECTION 58 TIMBER BASED MATERIALS 5B 158 ‘New Sling’ - Steam bent seat by David Trubridge Wood joints ‘One of the most effective ways ta join two or more pieces of wood is with a wood joint. Wood joints can be used to fabricate carcase constructions ¢.g, @ drawer or bookshelf, and frame constructions e.g. tables, chairs and picture frames. Joints need to be made precisely and time should be taken to mark out accurately and ensure that any cuts are made on the waste side of the marked out lines. Joints are best pared down with a chisel if they do not fit first time. It is preferable to have wood joints that are a tight ft rather than ones which are too loose and require filing, as this can weaken them. Name _| Characteristics Image Butt joint | The most basic joint, not very strong due to little surface area for the adhesive and no mechanical advantage. Pins or nails often used Dowelled | Similar to the butt joint but with wooden joint dowels that add strength and assist rigidity, Dowels are glued in for extra strength Mitre joint |More attractive than the butt joint and used for picture frames and surrounds, Weak due to lack of surface area, metal splines can be used to help strengthen them Housing [A stronger joint that has larger surface joint area for glueing and the physical advantage of the wood being supported by three sides Mortise [A strong joint used in table and chair and tenon | construction. Very large surface area ibe le joint for glue and good physical advantage created by the tenon Section 88 Timber based materialsChapter 29 — Commercial manufacturing, surface treatments and finishes Objectives * Know and understand how timbers and boards are selected and processed for commercial products * Learn how materials are cut, shaped and formed to a tolerance * Lear about the preparation and application of treatments and fishes to enhance functional and aesthetic propertios Timber and manufactured board for commercial products Commercial products are nearly always aimed at a certain price point and this often determines the quality of the chosen construction material Trasitional wooden toys eimed at children are frequently made from beech as it has a fine dense grain which gives it resistance to splintering and chipping when dropped or thrown. It is also non- toxic and finishes well. It can be sanded to a very fine and smooth finish and is equally appealing either in its unfinished pinkish grain or painted, Ifthe manufacturer wanted to save production costs, they could decide to use a softwood such as pine or spruce. The result would have slightly different aesthetics, being yellower with a more Pronounced grain, The blocks would be prone te denting and splitting over time due to a more ‘open grain structure which makes the wood softer and less durable than beech, Toy builcing blocks in beech and in pine Flat pack furniture Manufactured boards are most often seen commercially in flat-pack products. Disadvantages of flat-pack furniture Needs to be constructed yourself or by someone else at additional cost * Not as robust as traditional furniture ‘Advantages of flat-pack furniture © Compact for ease of transportation . * Low cost compared to traditional furniture * Alerge choice of styles and finishes + Easy to assemble with limited tools and experience + Can be disassembled for storage/moving * Can be complex to construct for some * Prone to damage by moisture * Can chip and break more easily Chapter 29 Commercial manufacturing, surface treatments and finishes CHAPTER 29 COMMERCIAL MANUFACTURING 5B 159SECTION 58 TIMBER BASED MATERIALS 160 ‘As manufactured board is so dimensionally stable it can be processed, transported, stored and assemibled without the risk of developing the faults of natural timbers, although it can be prone to absorbing moisture in damp and humid conditions, Commercial routing and turning In industry, most machining and shaping of furniture, artefacts and components is now done using CNC (Computer Numerical Control) routers for flat materials and CNC lathes for oylindrical objects. Great repetitive accuracy, and a level of detail that would be very dificult to manage by hand, can be achieved. Routers are available in very large formats that are capable of producing flat-packed furniture but they can also create detailed ornate profiles if required Industrial carpenter routing the detail into a wooden door Section 58 Timber based materialsQuality control ‘When products are made, checking that they are being produced correctly is an essential stage. This is known as quality control (QC) and ensures dimensional accuracy is consistent or that the product is safe to use ‘To save checking every vital measurement on every product with an accurate measuring device, special tools known as go/no go gauges are used. These tools are set to the specific minimum or maximum tolerances allowed for that particular component, Itis then a simple task of placing the fixture onto the part of the workpiece being measured. The gauge will indicate whether the part is ‘go' or ‘no go’ (too big or too small) and can be easily rejected if itis the incorrect size. Surface treatments and finishes Most woods, whether natural or manufactured, perform better if they have a finish applied to them. The reasons for applying a finish ‘all into two main areas: aesthetics and protection. CHAPTER 29 COMMERCIAL MANUFACTURING Aesthetics can mean colouring or staining to: 5B © match or contrast with existing materials enhance the natural grain of the timber * give it a sheen or shine or even a matt surface finish Protection can mean making it: + waterproof * less prone to fungal or insect attack * tougher so it resists knocks and bumps * easy to wipe clean and disinfect When purchasing rough-sawn timber, particularly for outside use, there is the option of having it pressure-treated or tanalised. This is a process of forcing wood preservative into the cell structure of the timber under pressure in @ vacuum. The wood preservative does not go right ‘through the timber but the process is more effective than painting it on the surface alone. Tanalising protects timber from fungal and insect attack and will delay the onset of rot but it does not make the wood waterproof. What treatments might you want to apply to a spruce garden fence? Chapter 29 Commercial manufacturing, surface treatments and finishes 161SECTION 58 TIMBER BASED MATERIALS 162 Common protections and finishes for timber-based products Most finishes for woods are available with a range of different base liquids. The three categories are oll-based, solvent-based and water-based. Traditionally oll and solvent-based products were used, and these are stil considered the longest lasting. However, they are not very environmentally friendly as they usually contain high volatile organic compounds (VOCs). This means that they give off fumes that are considered hazardous to health and should be used according to the manufacturer's instructions, normally wearing a mask in a well ventilated area. Water-based products are becoming much more popular and are kinder to the environment. These should be used where possible around children and animals, as they are non-toxic. Name | Characteristics [Image Name | Characteristics Wood | Painted on to i Paint Painted preservative) protect wood brush or roller, from fungal usually needs or insect primer and attack and undercoat on prevent rot and ‘bare wood, decay, needs reapplication to maintain the levels of protection Varnish | Protects from moisture, can wide range of colours available Permanently colours wood, bbe coloured does not protect with stain, it, results vary enhances grain, depending on gloss, satin base wood and or matt finish, colour yellows with age. Oil Similar effect Rubbed into to vamish but the wood with soaks into cloth or wire the timber wool, enhances rather than sitting on the surface, needs reapplying frequently natural grain, needs regular reapplication Section 88 Timber based materials