illuminator Condenser is used to collect and focus

the light from the illuminator on to the

specimen.

Diaphragm controls the amount of light

reaching the specimen. It is located
above the condenser and below the
stage.
Preparation of a wet mount slide

 The specimen needs to be as thin as possible. A thin specimen will allow light to pass through. As such, thick specimens will need to be sliced down
into the thinnest sample possible.

 There is a “dry mount” and a “wet mount”. Your specimen can be placed directly onto the microscope slide, in which case, it is called a “dry
mount“. In a “wet mount“, you first need to place a drop of water onto the microscope slide, into which you will place your specimen. The mount you
choose will depend upon your specimen e.g. dry mounts are good for studying specimens like pollen while wet mounts are better for studying aquatic
organisms.

 Preparing a wet mount:

1. Using a pipette, place a drop of water onto the middle of a clean microscope slide.

2. Place your specimen into the water drop using tweezers.

3. Place a cover slip on top of the specimen. Extra care needs to be taken with a wet mount as you may trap air bubbles underneath. Start by standing the
cover slip upright on its edge over the specimen, then using your tweezers, carefully lower it into place.

4. Add any necessary stains after the cover slip is in position. Place a drop of the
stain at one side of the cover slip. Then, place a paper towel against the edge of the opposite side. This will draw the stain under the cover slip and
across the specimen. You may need to add another drop to ensure the specimen is fully stained, or you may wish to repeat this process with a different
stain.

CELLS

A cell is a basic unit of life. There are 2 types of cells, prokaryotic and eukaryotic. Two cells that are eukaryotic are plant and animal cells.

Structures of plant cell

(student drawing-labelled)

Structure of animal cell

(student drawing-labelled)

Animal cells do not have CELL WALL and CHLOROPLASTS.

Functions of cellular components (organelles)

ORGANELLES FOUND IN BOTH PLANTS AND ANIMAL CELLS

Cell Membrane

Structure: Consists of a phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins and cholesterol.

Functions:

 Selective Permeability: Regulates the entry and exit of substances.

 Signal Reception: Contains receptors for cellular communication.
 Interaction with Environment: Enables cell to respond to external changes.

Nucleus

Structure: Enclosed by a nuclear envelope, containing DNA and nucleolus.

Functions:

 Genetic Storage: Houses chromosomes with genetic information.

 Regulation of Gene Expression: Controls cellular activities by regulating DNA transcription.
 Ribosome Production: The nucleolus within the nucleus produces ribosomes.
Cytoplasm

Composition: A gel-like substance composed mainly of water, salts, and proteins.

Functions:

 Metabolic Reactions: Hosts numerous biochemical processes.

 Medium for Molecular Movement: Facilitates the transport of molecules within the cell.
 Structural Support: Gives cells their shape and keeps organelles in place.

Ribosomes

Structure: Made of rRNA and proteins; found in cytoplasm and on the endoplasmic reticulum.

Functions:

 Protein Synthesis: Translates mRNA into amino acid chains (proteins).

 Enzyme Production: Produces enzymes essential for various cellular processes.

Mitochondria

Structure: Double membrane-bound, with inner folds (cristae) and a matrix.

Functions:

 ATP Production: Generates ATP via cellular respiration.

 Regulation of Cellular Metabolism: Influences metabolic activities.
 Apoptosis Induction: Plays a role in programmed cell death.

Vacuoles

Functions:

 Storage: Holds water, nutrients, and waste products.

 Turgor Pressure Maintenance: Contributes to cell rigidity.
 pH and Ion Balance: Regulates the cell’s internal pH and ion balance.

ORGANELLES FOUND IN PLANT CELLS ONLY

Cell Wall

Composition: Primarily made of cellulose, a complex carbohydrate.

Functions:

 Structural Support: Provides rigidity, maintaining the cell's shape.

 Water Regulation: Prevents the cell from absorbing too much water.
 Protection: Shields against mechanical stress and pathogenic invasion.

Chloroplasts

Structure: Contains a double membrane, chlorophyll and enzymes.

Functions:

 Photosynthesis: Converts solar energy into glucose, a vital energy source.

 Starch Storage: Stores glucose in the form of starch.
 Oxygen Production: Releases oxygen as a byproduct of photosynthesis.

SPECIALIZED CELLS

These are cells which have stopped growing, have a definite shape and perform one specific function and have special kinds of chemical reactions that enable
them to carry out its specific function.

Examples of specialized cells.

Cell Function Relationship between structure & Function.

1. Red Blood Cells Responsible for transporting O2 - Has a biconcave and disc shaped structure that helps it
move in the blood vessels
(Erythrocytes)
- Has a spongy cytoplasm that helps it to compress itself in
blood vessels with small lumen

- Absence of nucleus increases surface area for absorption

and transportation of O2

- Presence of haemoglobin that binds easily to O2 and carry

it as an unstable compound called oxyhaemoglobin

2. Muscle cell It moves bones in different - Long and thin & have numerous protein fibres in the
directions (contract / relax to help cytoplasm. (fibre helps to shorten the cell when there is
move structures) energy)

- Can of contract & relax in order to move parts

3. Sperm cell Fuse with ovum to from a zygote - Has streamlined head to enable it to move towards ovum
with less friction

- Has a tail to help it swim towards the ovum.

4. Ovum Fuse with sperm to from a zygote - It has a large food store to provide the zygote with
nourishment before implantation

5. White Blood Cells Phagocytes – engulf & digest - Phagocytes are polymorphs; can change shape of
bacteria (pathogens) cytoplasm and pass through blood vessels like amoeba.
(Leucocytes are two
types; Phagocytes & - Have Granular cytoplasm with lobed nucleus.
Lymphocytes)
Lymphocytes – produce chemicals
called antibodies that kill bacteria

6. Root hair cell - Absorb water from the soil - Large number of mitochondria to generate energy needed
for active transport of ions
- Absorb mineral ions (salts)
from the soil - Has a projection that enables to penetrate tightly packed
soil particles
- anchor the plants firmly to the
ground. - Have Large concentrated sap vacuole which ensures water
uptake through osmosis

7. Xylem cells - Transport water & dissolved - Has dead hollow tube without cytoplasm to allow flow of
minerals from the roots to top water
part of a plant
- Walls are lignified (coated with lignin) to withstand water
- Supports the plant against pressure
mechanical damage
- cylindrical cells are attached end to end form a xylem
 vessel.

8. Nerve Cell (neuron) Transmits nerve impulses - Have very long fibres which connect distant parts of the
(messages) around the body body

- Fibres are coated with sheath to prevent loss & distortion

of messages.

- Chemical reactions cause the impulses to travel along the

fibre

9. Palisade cell To make sugar (starch) through - Has lots of chloroplasts to produce chlorophyll which
photosynthesis traps sunlight energy for the process

- Elongated so that they can pack tightly

- Located close to the upper epidermis to receive more

sunlight

10. Guard cells To regulate the opening & closing - Crescent shaped
of stomata allowing for gaseous
exchange between the leaf and - Always paired to form a stomata
the atmosphere
- Are able to change shape to close / open depending on
whether its day or night.

Movement of Substances in & out of cells

The cell membrane and cell wall control substances that enter and exit the cell.

The cell membrane is a bilayer phospholipid bilayer. It is made up of carrier proteins and phospholipids. Substances move in
and out of the cell in various ways through this membrane. The various ways can be either passive or active transport.

Passive transport

These processes do not require energy. Examples of these processes are

-diffusion (e.g. oxygen, carbon dioxide, fatty acids)

-osmosis

Active transport

These processes require energy.

-Active transport (movement of solutes from a low concentrated area to a high one-against concentration gradient)

(e.g. Potassium and Sodium)

-Vesicular transport (transport by vesicle/sac) e.g. exocytosis and endocytosis.