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EE : ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Compendium of Important Results and Formulae

CONTENTS

Chapter
Topic Page No.
No.

1. Signals and Systems 1

2. Control Systems 11

3. Networks 18

4. Digital Circuits 25

5. Analog Integrated Circuits 32

6. Electromagnetics 39
 Compendium of Important Results and Formulae

1. SIGNALS & SYSTEMS

Linear Time Invarient Systems
Part A: Continuous time signal & system
∞
• E= ∫f
2
(t)dt …..for Real signal
−∞
∞

∫ | f(t) |
2
= dt …..for complex signal
−∞

T/2
1
T →∞ T ∫
• P = lim f 2 (t)dt …..for Real signal
−T/2

T/2
1
T →∞ T ∫
= lim | f(t) |2 dt …..for complex signal
−T /2

• r.m.s. value = P

1
• feven (t) = {f(t) + f(−t)}
2
1
Fodd (t) = {f(t) − f(− t)}
2

• Zero input response yo(t)

Nature of roots of Q(λ) = 0 yo(t)

i) All distinct roots yo(t) = c1eλ1t + c 2 eλ2 t + ....cneλnt

ii) Some roots repeated (r−times) { }
yo(t) = c1 + c 2 t + .... + cr tr −1 eλt
iii) Complex conjugate roots (α ± jβ) y (t) = ( e
o
αt
cos(βt + θ )
• Impulse response, h(t)
h(t) = bn δ(t) + [P(D) yn(t) ] u(t)
..…[with ynn−1 (o) = 1, yn(o) = yn(o) = …..= ynn− 2 (o) = 0]

• Zero state response (convolution Integral)

∞
y(t) = ∫ f(τ).h(t − τ)dτ = f(t) * h(t)
−∞

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(2) Vidyalankar − GATE − EE

If both signal f(t) and system h(t) are causal

t
y(t) = ∫ f(τ).h(t − τ)dτ
o−

Part B: Discrete Time Signal and Systems

∞
• E= ∑ | f[n] |
n =−∞
2

N
1
• Pavg = lim
N→∞ 2N + 1
∑ | f[K] |
K =−N
2

• Signal to be periodic
Ω m
= = rational number
2π No

• Fundamental range of digital frequency (Ω) is −π to π

• Zero input response yo[K]

Nature of roots of Q(r) = 0 yo[K]

i) All distinct roots yo[K] = c1r1K + c 2r2K + ..... + cn γKn

ii) Some roots repeated (say r−times) { }
yo[K] = c1 + c 2k + .....cr Kr −1 rK
±jβ
iii) Complex conjugate roots (re ) yo[K] = crK cos(βk + θ)

• Unit impulse response h[k]

b
h[K] = o δ [K] + yn [K] u[K]
ao
• Zero state response (convolution sum)
∞
y[K] = f[K] * h[K] = ∑
m = −∞
f[m] h [K − m]

If both system and signal are causal

K
y[K] = ∑ f[m]h[K − m]
m=0

Continuous and Discrete Time Fourier Series and Transform

Part A: Continuous time Fourier Series
• f(t) = Cx(t)
t2

∫ f(t).x(t)dt
t1
……C = t2

∫x
2
(t)dt
t1

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 Compendium of Important Results and Formulae (3)

• Orthogonal Signal
t2
⎧0 ∀m ≠ n
∫
t1
x m (t).x n (t) = ⎨
⎩En ∀m = n

If En = 1, Signals are orthonormal

• Trignometric Fourier Series

∞
f(t)=a0 + ∑
n 1
an cosnw 0 t + bn sinnw 0 t
=
t + T0
1
a0 =
T0 ∫t f(t)dt

t + T0
2
an
T0 ∫t f(t).cosnw 0 t dt ,n = 1, 2, 3, …..

t + T0
2
bn =
T0 ∫t f(t).sinnw 0 t dt ,n = 1, 2, 3, …..

• Compact Trignometric Fourier Series

∞
f(t) = c 0 + ∑ cn cos ( nw 0 t + θn )
n =1
c0 = a0
cn = an2 + bn2
⎛ −b ⎞
θn = tan−1 ⎜ n ⎟
⎝ an ⎠
• Effect of Symmetry
i) for even function
T0 / 2
2
a0 =
T0 ∫0 f(t)dt

T0 / 2
4
an =
T0 ∫0 f(t).cosnw 0 t dt

bn = 0
ii) for odd function
a0 = an = 0
T0 / 2
4
bn =
T0 ∫
0
f(t).sinnw 0 t dt

⎛ T ⎞
iii) for half−ware symmetry i.e. f(t) = −f ⎜ t − 0 ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
→ all even harmonic vanish

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(4) Vidyalankar − GATE − EE

• Exponential Fourier Series

∞
f(t) =
n
∑ Dne jnw t
=−∞
0

1 − jnw 0 t
Dn =
T0 ∫ f(t).e
T
dt
0

D0 = c0 = a0
1 1
Dn = ( an − jbn ) = cne jθn
2 2
1 1
Dn = ( an + jbn ) = cne− jθn
2 2

• Parreral’s Theorem
1 ∞
PF = c 20 + ∑ cn2
2 n =1
∞ ∞
= ∑ Dn2 = D20 + 2∑ Dn2
n =−∞ n =1

• Continuous Time Fourier Transform

∞

∫ f(t)e
− jwt
F(w) = dt
−∞

∞
1
∫ F(w)e dw
jwt
f(t) =
2π −∞

• Properties of Fourier Transform (FT)

i) Linearity
af1(t) + bf2(t) ←⎯→ aF1(w) + bF2(w)

ii) Time Scaling property

1 ⎛w⎞
f(at) ←⎯→ F
| a | ⎜⎝ a ⎟⎠
iii) Symmetry
f(t) ←⎯→ F(w)
Then, F(t) ←⎯→ 2πf(−w)

iv) Time Shifting

f(t − t0) ←⎯→ F(w)e− jwt0

v) Frequency Shifting
e jw0 t f(t) ←⎯→ F(w − w 0 )

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 Compendium of Important Results and Formulae (5)

vi) Time Convolution

f1(t) * f2 (t) ←⎯→ F1(w).F2 (w)

vii) Frequency Convolution

1
f1(t).f2(t) ←⎯→ F1(w) * F2 (w)
2π

viii) Time differentiation property

d
f(t) ←⎯→ (jw)F(w)
dt
dn
n
f(t) ←⎯→ (jw)n F(w)
dt

ix) Time integration property

t
F(w)
∫−∞ f(t)dt = πF(0) δ(w) + jw
x) Some FT pairs

1
i) e− at u(t)
a + jw
n!
ii) tne− at u(t)
(a + jw)n + 1
⎛t⎞ ⎛ wτ ⎞
iii) rect ⎜ ⎟ τ sinc ⎜ ⎟
⎝τ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
iv) δ(t) 1

v) 1 2πδ(w)

vi) e jw0 t 2πδ(w − w0)

1
vii) u(t) πδ(w) +
jw
2
viii) sgn(t)
jw
ix) cosw0t π {δ (w + w 0 ) + δ (w − w 0 )}
x) sinw0t jπ {δ (w + w 0 ) − δ (w − w 0 )}
⎛t⎞ τ ⎛ wτ ⎞
xi) Δ ⎜ ⎟ sinc 2 ⎜ ⎟
⎝τ⎠ 2 ⎝ 4 ⎠
w ⎛ w ⎞
xii) sinc(wt) rect ⎜ ⎟
π ⎝ 2w ⎠
w ⎛ wt ⎞ ⎛ w ⎞
xiii) sinc 2 ⎜ ⎟ Δ⎜ ⎟
2π ⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2w ⎠

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(6) Vidyalankar − GATE − EE

• Raleigh Energy theorem

∞ ∞
1
EF = ∫ f 2 (t)dt = ∫ | F(w) | dw
2

−∞
2π −∞

Part B: Discrete time Fourier Series (DTFS)

N−1
2π
• f [K]= ∑ Dr e jrΩ0K ….. Ω0 = w 0 T =
r =0 N0
N−1
1
Dr =
N0
∑= f[K]e− Ω
K 0
jr 0K

• Discrete Time Fourier Transform (DTFT)

∞
F(Ω) =
K
∑
=−∞
f[K]e− Ω j K

1
F[K] = ∫
2π 2 π
F(Ω)e jΩK dΩ

Note: Fourier spectra is continuous with period 2π

• Properties of DTFT
i) Linearity
af1[K] + bf2[K] ←⎯→ aF1(Ω) + bF2(Ω)

ii) Time inversion

f(−K) ←⎯→ F(−Ω)

iii) Multiplication of K
dF(Ω)
Kf[K] ←⎯→ j
dΩ
iv) Time Shifting
f[K − K0] ←⎯→ F(Ω) e − jΩK0

v) Frequency Shifting
e jΩ0K f[K] ←⎯→ F(Ω − Ω0 )

vi) Time Convolution

f1[K] * f2 [K] ←⎯→ F1(Ω).F2 (Ω)

vii) Frequency Convolution

1
f1[K].f2[K] ←⎯→ F1(Ω) * F2 (Ω)
2π
viii) Parreral’s Theorem
∞
1
Ef =
K
∑
=−∞
| f[K] | 2
=
2π 2∫π
| F(Ω) |2 dΩ

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 Compendium of Important Results and Formulae (7)

Definition and Properties of Laplace Transform

∞

∫ f(t)e
− st
• F(s) = dt …..bilateral Laplace Transform
−∞
σ+ j∞
1
2πj σ−∫j∞
F(t) = F(s)est ds

∫ f(t)e
− st
• F(s) = dt …..unilateral laplace Transform
−
0

• Properties of Laplace Transform

i) Linearity
a1f1(t) + a2f2(t) ←⎯→ a1F1(s) + a2F2(s)

ii) Frequency Shifting

eat f(t) ←⎯→ f(s−a)

iii) Time Shifting

f(t − t0) ←⎯→ F(s).e− st0

iv) Time differentiation

df(t)
←⎯→ sF(s) − f(o− )
dt
dn f(t) •

n
←⎯→ SnF(s) − Sn−1 f(o− ) − Sn− 2 f(o − )......
dt
v) Time Integration
t
F(s)
∫ f(t)dt ←⎯→ S
o−

vi) Time Convolution

f1(t) * f2 (t) ←⎯→ F1(s).F2 (s)
vii) Frequency Convolution
1
f1(t) . f2(t) ←⎯→ F1(s) * F2 (s)
2πj
viii) Multiplication by t
dF(s)
tf(t) ←⎯→ −
ds
dnF(s)
tn f(t) ←⎯→ (−1)n
dsn
ix) Scaling Property
1 ⎛S⎞
f(at) ←⎯→ F ⎜ ⎟ , a>0
a ⎝a⎠

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(8) Vidyalankar − GATE − EE

x) Frequency Integration Property

∞
f(t)
←⎯→ ∫ F(s)ds
t S

xi) Initial Value Theorem

lim+ f(t) = lim SF(s)
t →0 S →∞

xii) Final value Theorem

lim f(t) = lim SF(s) .....poles of SF(s) must be in L.H.S.
t →∞ S→0

• Some important Laplace Transform pair

f(t) F(s)
δ(t) 1
1
u(t)
S
n!
tn u(t)
Sn+1
e−αt u(t) 1
S+α
n!
tne−αt u(t)
(S + α)n+1
s
cosw0t u(t)
s2 + w 20
w0
sinw0t u(t)
s + w 20
2

• Laplace Transform of Circuit elements

Time domain Laplace (s) − domain
R R

L sL

1
c
Sc

z − Transform
∞
• F(z) = ∑ f[K]z
K =−∞
−K

1
2πj ∫
f[K] = F(z)zK −1 dz

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 Compendium of Important Results and Formulae (9)

• Properties of z − transform
i) Linearity
a1f1[K] + a2f2[K] ←⎯→ a1F1(z) + a2F2(z)
ii) Scaling property
⎡z⎤
rK f [K] ←⎯→ F ⎢ ⎥
⎣r ⎦
iii) Time shifting property
a) f[K ± m]u[K ± m] ←⎯→ z ± m F(z)
m
b) f[K − m]u[K] ←⎯→ z −mF(z) + z −m ∑ f[ −r]zr
r =1
m −1
c) f[K + m]u[K] ←⎯→ zm F(z) − zm ∑ f[r]z −r
r =0

iv) Multiplication by K
dF(z)
Kf[K] ←⎯→ − z
dz
v) Time Convolution
f1[K] * f2 [K] ←⎯→ F1(z).F2 (z)
vi) Frequency Convolution
1 ⎛z⎞
f1[K].f2 [K] ←⎯→
2πj 
∫ F1(u).F2 ⎜ ⎟ u−1 du
⎝u⎠
vii) Initial Value Theorem
f[0] = lim F(z)
z →∞

viii) Final value Theorem

f[∞] = lim(z − 1)F(z)
z →1

…..provided (z−1) F(z) does not have any role outside unit circle.
• Some z−Transform pairs
δ[K] ←⎯→ 1
δ[K − m] ←⎯→ z −m
Z
u[K] ←⎯→
z −1
Z
γK u[K] ←⎯→
z−γ
K(K − 1) (K − 2) ….(K − m + 1)γK u [K ] Z
←⎯→
γ m!
m
(z − γ )m +1
z(z − cos w 0 )
[cosw0K] u[K] ←⎯→
z − 2z cos w 0 + 1
2

z sin w 0
[sinw0K] u[K] ←⎯→
z − 2z cos w 0 + 1
2

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(10) Vidyalankar − GATE − EE

Sampling
• Nyquist rate
Sampling frequency (Fs) = 2 × fmax
Note: If FS < 2fmax will cause aliasing

• Relationship between analog & digital frequency

2π
Ωdigital = wanalog Ts =
N0 (Number of Sample)
Note: −π ≤ Ωf ≤ π

• Sampling frequency for band pass signal

2f
fs ≥ max
r
⎡ ⎛f ⎞ f ⎤
….. ⎢r = ⎜ max ⎟ = integer value less than max ⎥
⎣ ⎝ BW ⎠ BW ⎦
Note: for band pass signal 4W ≤ fs ≤ 8W ..…[2W = message BW]

• Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT)

N −1
i) Fr = ∑ f[K]e
K =0
− jrΩ0K

1 N −1
2π
ii) f [K] =
N0
∑F e
r =0
r
jrΩ0K
….. Ω0 = w 0 Ts =
N0

• Properties of DFT
i) Linearity
a1fk + a2gk ←⎯→ a1Fr + a2Gr

ii) Conjugate Symmetry

FN0 −r ←⎯→ Fr*

iii) Time Shifting ( circular shifting)

fK −n ←⎯→ Fr e− jrΩ0n

iv) Frequency shifting

fK e jkΩ0m ←⎯→ Fr −m

v) Circular convolution
fK * gK ←⎯→ Fr Gr

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