Module-5: Exercise-5
Q-Compare and contrast the electrical conductivity of
nanowires (e.g. silver or copper nanowires) and bulk-wires.
Explain the basic idea of a nanowire and give examples of
superconducting, metallic, semiconducting and
insulating nanowires.
Basic Idea of a Nanowire
1.Definition: A nanowire is a nanostructure in the form of a
wire with a diameter on the order of nanometers (10⁻⁹ m),
constrained to tens of nanometers or less.
2.Length: Nanowires have unconstrained lengths relative to
their extremely small diameters.
3.Quantum Effects: Due to their small size, quantum
mechanical effects dominate, leading to unique electrical,
thermal, and optical properties.
Examples of Nanowires by Type
1.Superconducting Nanowires: Examples include YBCO
(Yttrium Barium Copper Oxide).
2.Metallic Nanowires: Examples include Ni (Nickel), Pt
(Platinum), Au (Gold), and Ag (Silver).
3.Semiconducting Nanowires: Examples include Silicon
Nanowires (SiNWs), InP (Indium Phosphide), and GaN
(Gallium Nitride).
4.Insulating Nanowires: Examples include SiO₂ (Silicon
Dioxide) and TiO₂ (Titanium Dioxide).
5.Molecular Nanowires: Organic examples include DNA;
inorganic examples include Mo₆S₉₋ₓIₓ (Molybdenum
Sulfide Iodide).
Distinguish between the structures of nanowires and bulk
wires, and also, between ordinary conductance
and “quantum” conductance with reference to “quantum
confinement”.
Distinction Between Nanowires and Bulk Wires
1.Aspect Ratio: Nanowires have an aspect ratio
(length-to-width) of 1000 or more, making them
one-dimensional (1D) materials. Bulk wires are
three-dimensional (3D) materials without such high aspect
ratios.
2.Quantum Confinement: In nanowires, electrons are
quantum confined laterally, leading to discrete energy
levels. Bulk wires exhibit a continuum of energy levels or
bands due to lack of confinement.
3.Conductance Properties: Nanowires exhibit discrete
conductance values due to quantum mechanical constraints.
Bulk wires display continuous conductance values based on
classical transport mechanisms.
Difference Between Ordinary Conductance and Quantum
Conductance
1.Ordinary Conductance: In bulk materials, conductance
arises from continuous energy levels and is governed by
classical transport mechanisms without quantum
confinement effects.
2.Quantum Conductance: Nanowires show conductance as
discrete values, approximately integer multiples of the
quantum of conductance, due to quantum confinement at
the nanometer scale.
3.Quantitative Relation: Quantum conductance values are
defined as multiples of (2e ^ 2)/h , the reciprocal of von
Klitzing constant RK = h/e2, approximately RK =
25812.80745... Ω
Give plausibility arguments for lesser conductivity of
nanowires than that for their bulk counterparts.
1.Boundary Scattering: Scattering from nanowire
boundaries significantly reduces conductivity, especially
when wire width is below the bulk material's free electron
mean free path (e.g., 40 nm for copper).
2.Reduced Mean Free Path: For wires smaller than the
mean free path, the path shortens to the wire width,
reducing electron mobility and conductivity.
3.Edge Effects: Unbonded atoms at the nanowire surface act
as defects, increasing resistance. Surface atoms dominate as
size shrinks, worsening these effects.
4.Channel Reduction: Fewer electron transport channels in
thinner wires limit conductivity. Channel quantization
occurs, restricting conductance to discrete multiples of (2e
^ 2)/h
5.Material Dependence: Metals (e.g., silver) and
semiconductors (e.g., silicon) show pronounced
quantization effects, resulting in stepwise reductions in
conductivity as wire diameter decreases.
Discuss advantages of using nanowires (instead of bulk
wires) in electronic devices.
1.Discrete Conductance: Quantum conductance allows
precise control of electrical properties, advantageous for
nanoscale electronic components and sensors.
2.Size-Dependent Properties: Smaller sizes enable
integration into compact, high-density devices, critical for
miniaturized electronics.
3.Enhanced Threshold Voltage: Increased threshold voltage
in semiconductors (e.g., silicon fins) improves switching
characteristics for digital applications like MOSFETs.
4.Ballistic Transport Potential: Although less common in
nanowires compared to nanotubes, ballistic electron
transport may still be harnessed in specific conditions.
5.Material Flexibility: Nanowires of various materials (e.g.,
silicon, gallium arsenide) offer tunable properties for
applications in semiconductors and advanced transistors.
Exercise - 4: Compare and contrast the magnetic properties of
bulk-materials and nano-materials. [10 marks]
Your response should be in terms of the following points:
• Compare “ferromagnetism” in contrast to “paramagnetism” in
terms of the idea of magnetic domains.
Sub-Question 1: Ferromagnetism vs. Paramagnetism in Terms of Magnetic Domains
1.Ferromagnetism:
○ Magnetic Domains: Characterized by the presence of
magnetic domains (Weiss domains), where all
magnetons align in the same direction due to exchange
forces.
○ Magnetic Alignment: Domains align under an
external field, producing strong, permanent
magnetism.
○ Size Effects: Domain structure changes with size;
below critical size, particles become single domain.
2.Paramagnetism:
○ Magnetic Domains: Lacks magnetic domains.
Magnetons do not group and are randomly oriented.
○ Magnetic Alignment: Weak and temporary alignment
occurs only under an external field, which vanishes
when the field is removed.
○ Size Effects: Not influenced by domain structure, as
no domains exist.
• Explain the behaviour of a bulk ferromagnetic material when
its size is reduced to nano scale.
Behavior of Bulk Ferromagnetic Material When Reduced to
Nanoscale
1. Change in Magnetic Domain Structure
● Bulk Ferromagnetic Material:
In bulk materials, multiple magnetic domains exist. These
domains minimize the magnetostatic energy by arranging
themselves in configurations that cancel out stray fields.
Domain walls separate these regions of uniform
magnetization.
● Nanoparticles (<15 nm):
When the particle size is reduced below a critical size
(typically ~15 nm), the material transitions to a
single-domain state, meaning the entire particle is
uniformly magnetized. This occurs because forming
domain walls becomes energetically unfavorable in such
small dimensions.
2. Superparamagnetism
● Bulk Material:
Bulk ferromagnets exhibit stable magnetization even
without an external magnetic field due to strong dipole
interactions across large domains.
● Nanoparticles:
At the nanoscale, particularly above the blocking
temperature, thermal fluctuations overcome the magnetic
anisotropy energy, leading to random flipping of the
magnetic moment. This phenomenon is called
superparamagnetism, where the magnetic behavior
resembles that of paramagnets but with a significantly
larger magnetic moment.
3. Enhanced Surface Effects
● Bulk Material:
The magnetic behavior of bulk materials is dominated by
the interior of the material, where atoms experience
uniform interactions.
● Nanoparticles:
In nanoparticles, a higher proportion of atoms are located
on the surface. These surface atoms experience different
interactions compared to interior atoms, leading to:
○ Increased anisotropy contributions due to broken
symmetry.
○ Structural defects or impurities that alter the magnetic
behavior.
○ High field irreversibility and shifted hysteresis loops
upon cooling under a magnetic field.
4. Altered Synthesis Methods and Material Characteristics
● Nanoparticles can have amorphous or crystalline structures
depending on the synthesis method (e.g., plasma
atomization, wet chemistry).
● Particle size, shape, and surface chemistry vary with
synthesis, influencing their:
○ Magnetic anisotropy.
○ Structural defects.
○ Magnetic saturation and coercivity.
5. High Saturation Fields and Magnetic Moment
Nanoparticles often require higher magnetic fields to reach
saturation due to their enhanced anisotropy. They also exhibit
extraordinarily large magnetic moments compared to bulk
materials, particularly in the superparamagnetic state.
Coercivity in Magnetic Materials
1. Meaning of Coercivity:
Coercivity refers to the intensity of an external magnetic field
required to reduce the magnetization of a material to zero after it
has been magnetized. It represents the resistance of a material to
demagnetization and is a key parameter in the hysteresis loop of
a magnetic material.
● Hysteresis Loop: Coercivity is related to the "thickness" of
the loop, indicating how much external field is needed to
demagnetize the material.
● Size-Dependent Behavior: For fine particles, coercivity is
highly influenced by their size, structural defects, and
magnetic domain structure.
2. Coercivity in Different Magnetic Phases
● Multi-Domain Particles (Bulk Materials):
○ Coercivity is relatively low in multi-domain particles
because the domain walls can move easily under an
external magnetic field, facilitating demagnetization.
○ Bulk materials typically exhibit coercivity in the range
of several Oersteds (low) due to the large number of
domains.
● Single-Domain Particles (Critical Size):
○ Coercivity increases significantly as the material is
reduced to a single-domain size.
○ Domain-wall motion is absent, and the material
exhibits uniform magnetization, making it harder to
demagnetize.
○ Coercivity peaks at this stage because all spins align
strongly in one direction.
● Superparamagnetic Particles (Nanoscale Beyond
Critical Size):
○ When the size decreases further below the critical
diameter, thermal fluctuations dominate, and
coercivity drops to zero.
○ These particles exhibit superparamagnetism, where
they behave like paramagnetic materials but with
much larger magnetic moments.
○ In the absence of an external field, the magnetization
is zero due to spontaneous thermal demagnetization.
4. Applications
● Superparamagnetic nanoparticles (e.g., Fe₃O₄) are widely
used in biological applications due to their zero coercivity,
ensuring magnetism only in the presence of an external
field.
● Single-domain particles are utilized in high-density
magnetic storage devices, where high coercivity is
essential.
• Compare and contrast the terms “magnetoresistance” (of bulk
samples) and “giant magnetoresistance” (nano samples).
[remains a doubt]
Point 4: Magnetoresistance (Bulk) vs. Giant
Magnetoresistance (Nano)
1.Definition
○ Magnetoresistance (Bulk):
Magnetoresistance refers to the change in the
electrical resistance of a material as a function of an
applied magnetic field. It is quantified using the
formula:
where R(H) is the resistance in a magnetic field of
strength HHH, and R(0) is the resistance when no field
is applied (H=0)
○ Giant Magnetoresistance (Nano):
Giant magnetoresistance (GMR) is a much larger
resistance change observed in nanoscale multilayer
structures consisting of alternating ferromagnetic and
non-magnetic conductive layers. It occurs due to
spin-dependent scattering, which affects electron
transport.
2.Underlying Mechanism
○ Magnetoresistance (Bulk):
Results from classical effects, such as changes in
electron trajectories and scattering due to the Lorentz
force in the presence of a magnetic field.
○ Giant Magnetoresistance (Nano):
Arises from quantum mechanical effects in multilayer
structures. Resistance depends on the relative
magnetization alignment of adjacent ferromagnetic
layers:
■ Parallel Alignment: Low resistance due to
reduced spin scattering.
■ Antiparallel Alignment: High resistance due to
increased spin scattering.
3.Magnitude of Resistance Change
○ Magnetoresistance (Bulk):
Resistance change (δH) is typically small, often within
a few percent.
○ Giant Magnetoresistance (Nano):
Resistance change (δH) is significantly larger,
sometimes exceeding several tens of percent, hence
the term "giant."
4.Applications
○ Magnetoresistance (Bulk):
Limited to basic magnetic sensing and characterization
of materials.
○ Giant Magnetoresistance (Nano):
Enabled revolutionary applications, including:
■ Hard Disk Drives: High-density data storage
read/write heads.
■ Magnetic Sensors: Sensitive detection of weak
magnetic fields.
■ Spintronics: Technologies like magnetoresistive
random-access memory (MRAM).
5.Scale and Structure
○ Magnetoresistance (Bulk):
Observed in homogeneous bulk materials.
○ Giant Magnetoresistance (Nano):
Requires nanoscale multilayer structures, with
alternating ferromagnetic and non-magnetic
conductive layers, to exhibit the effect.