Chapter 2

Dynamics of a particle
Chapter 2 Dynamics of a particle

II.1. Introduction
In the previous chapter we studied the movement of bodies without taking into
account the causes which provoke the movement. In this chapter (dynamics) we study the
causes of movement, which are forces.
Dynamics is the analysis of the relationship between forces applied to a body and changes in
the movement of this body. It explains the relationship that exists between forces and other
quantities.

II.2. Definition
II.2.1. Concept of force
The movement is the result of the interaction between the particle and its environment. This
interaction is the force (vector quantity).
The unit of force in SI is the Newton: 1N = 1 Kg.m.s -2
There are two main categories of forces:
a- Contact forces: friction forces, tension forces, etc.
b- Forces at a distance: gravitational forces, electric forces, magnetic forces.
Example: a body slides on a horizontal surface by a wire.
II.2.2. Mass:
Mass is a scalar physical quantity that represents the quantity of matter which makes up a
particle, and it represents the inertia of the body.
II.2.3. Material point
We call a material point or point mass a mechanical system that can be modelled by a
geometric point M with which its mass m is associated.
Material system: is a set of material points.
We freely choose the system we study. Anything other than the system being studied is
called the exterior.
II.2.4. Isolated or pseudo-isolated system
A system is isolated if it is not subject to any external force.
A system is pseudo isolated if the Σ of the external forces applied to this system is zero:
ΣF=0
II.3. Momentum
A movement of a body does not depend only on the speed but also on its mass, two different
masses which move at the same speed do not arrive in the same way. For this we introduce a
quantity which is the momentum P.
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Chapter 2 Dynamics of a particle

The momentum relative to the reference frame R of a material point M, of mass m and speed
𝑣 is given by: 𝑃 = 𝑚𝑣.
Unit: kg.m/s; dimension: [momentum] = MLT−1
II.3.1 Conservation of quantity of movement:
If we have a system composed of N particles of masses mi and speeds 𝑉𝑖 , then the total
momentum of the system is given by:
𝑁

𝑃= 𝑃𝑖 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2 + 𝑃3 + ⋯ …
𝑖=1
For an isolated system this momentum is constant:
𝑁

𝑃= 𝑃𝑖 = 𝑐𝑠𝑡
𝑖=1

II.3.2. Case of two particles in collision

Consider a system of two particles m1 and m2.
Before the collision the speeds are noted V1 and V2.
𝑃 = 𝑃1 + 𝑃2 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 + 𝑚2 𝑣2
After the collision the speeds are noted as V’1 and V’2.

𝑃′ = 𝑃′1 + 𝑃′2 = 𝑚1 𝑣′1 + 𝑚2 𝑣′2

Conservation of momentum:

𝑃 = 𝑃′ ⟹ 𝑃1 + 𝑃2 = 𝑃′ 1 + 𝑃′ 2 ⟹ 𝑃1 − 𝑃′1 = 𝑃′ 2 − 𝑃′ 2
⟹ Δ𝑃1 = −Δ𝑃2
An interaction produces an exchange of momentum. The quantity of movement“lost” by one
particle is equal to the momentum “gained” by the other.

II.4. Fundamental Laws of Dynamics ‫القوانين األساسية في الديناميك‬

II.4.1. 1st Newton's law ‘Principle of Inertia’ ‫مبدأالعطالة‬

a. Statement of principle:‫نص المبدأ‬
If the material body is not subjected to any force or the vector resultant of the applied forces is
zero, it is:
 in a uniform rectilinear movement (v = cst and a=0)‫حروح ِستمٍّح ِٕتظّح‬
 at rest (ْ‫)فً ايسىى‬, if it was initially at rest (v=0).
This property of all bodies to resist change in speed (zero acceleration) is called inertia.

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Chapter 2 Dynamics of a particle

Example: The movements of passengers caused by vehicles when starting and braking. ‫تحرواخ‬
‫اٌرواب إٌاجّح ػٓ اٌّروثاخ ػٕد االٔطالق واٌفرٍِح‬.
b. Galilean frame of reference‫معلم غاليلي‬
An inertia reference frame is a reference frame in which the principle of inertia is realized. i.e,
it keeps its inertia: it remains at rest if it is at rest and it keeps its uniform rectilinear
movement as long as 𝐹 = 0.
Note: Any frame of reference in uniform rectilinear translation with respect to a Galilean
frame of reference is itself Galilean.
The earth's reference frame is not reallyGalilean because of its movement. But we consider it
to be a Galilean reference because we carry out studies with low times.
‫ ٌىٕٕا ٔؼتثرٖ ِؼٍّا غاًٌٍٍٍا ألٕٔا ٔجري دراساخ فً أولاخ لصٍرج‬.ٗ‫اإلطار اٌّرجؼً ٌألرض ٌٍس غاًٌٍٍٍا حمًا تسثة حروت‬
‫جدا‬
Example on a non-Galilean frame of reference: an object placed in a truck in uniform
rectilinear motion. The body remains immobile in relation to the truck as long as the latter's
movement maintains its uniform rectilinear character. When the truck executes a movement in
a turn, the body would slide. Indeed, the reference linked to the truck is animated by a
curvilinear movement and the principle of inertia is no longer applicable (the object would not
maintain its state of rest in relation to the truck).
‫ ٌظً اٌجسُ ثاتتًا تإٌسثح ٌٍشاحٕح طاٌّا أْ حروح األخٍرج تحافظ‬.‫جسُ ِىضىع فً شاحٕح تتحرن تحروح ِستمٍّح ِٕتظّح‬
‫ ٌتُ تحرٌه اٌّرجغ اٌّرتثط‬،‫ فً اٌىالغ‬.ُ‫ ٌٕزٌك اٌجس‬،ْ‫ ػٕدِا تمىَ اٌشاحٕح تحروح دورا‬.ُ‫ػٍى طاتؼها اٌّستمٍُ إٌّتظ‬
)‫تاٌشاحٕح ِٓ خالي حروح ِٕحٍٕح وٌُ ٌؼد ِثدأاٌؼطاٌح لاتالً ٌٍتطثٍك (ٌٓ ٌحافظ اٌجسُ ػٍى حاٌح سىىٔٗ تإٌسثح ٌٍشاحٕح‬
Note: The principle of inertia can then be stated as follows: “A free particle moves with a
constant quantity of movement in a Galilean frame of reference. »
𝑑𝑃
𝑃 = 𝑐𝑠𝑡𝐹 = =0
𝑑𝑡

This is another formulation of the principle of inertia.

II.4.2. 2nd Newton's Law: ‘Fundamental Relation of Dynamics (FRD)’

The resultant of the forces exerted on a body is the derivative of the momentum:
𝑑𝑃 𝑑 𝑚𝑣
𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡 = =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
If the mass of the system is constant then:
𝑑𝑣
𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡 = 𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎
𝑑𝑡

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Chapter 2 Dynamics of a particle

II.4.3. 3rd Newton’s Law: ‘Principle of reciprocal actions’

Given that M1 and M2 two material points, 𝐹12 and 𝐹21 the reciprocal interaction forces,
applied by M1 on M2 and that applied by M2 on M1, respectively. The principle of reciprocal
actions, also called the principle of action 𝐹12 and the reaction 𝐹21 , states that:
 These two actions (forces) are exerted simultaneously and are of the same nature
 These two forces are opposite 𝐹12 = −𝐹12 and equal in moduli 𝐹12 = 𝐹12 .

 𝐹12 and 𝐹21 are belong to the same segment [M1M2]:

𝐹12 ∧ 𝑀1 𝑀2 = 0 , 𝐹21 ∧ 𝑀1 𝑀2 = 0 𝐹21 𝐹12
M2 M2
M1 M2
II.5. Classification of forces
II.5.1. Forces at a distance
The body which exerts the force is not in contact with the one on which it acts. There are 3
kinds of forces at a distance:
a) Gravitational forces: this is the action of one mass (body) on another. These two bodies
attract each other mutually with two opposing forces (according to Newton's 3rd law):
𝐹12 = −𝐹21
It’s the Law of universal gravitation which explains attraction between two bodies of
respective masses m1 and m2, separated by distance d.
m1 m2 𝑭𝟐𝟏
𝐹12 = 𝐹21 = 𝐹𝑔 = 𝐺 𝑭𝟏𝟐 𝒖
𝑑2
These forces are attractive. m2 d
m1
3
G: the gravitational constant, G = 6.67.10-11 [m /kg.s²]
Near the earth, the force of gravitation is what keeps objects on the ground.

b) Weight of a mass: Consider a point mass m, in gravitational interaction with Earth. The
latter acts on the mass with a force that we called the weight of the mass. Newton's second
law allows us to define this weight: 𝑃 = 𝑚𝑔
𝑔 is the acceleration of gravity (terrestrial acceleration), g=9.80 m/s 2.
c) Electric forces: They are exerted between two bodies carrying electrical charges. They can
be both attractive or repulsive.
d) Magnetic forces: They are exerted between magnets or between the latter and certain
materials (particularly iron). Both can be attractive or repulsive.

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Chapter 2 Dynamics of a particle
II.5.2. Contact forces
There must be contact between the two objects for a contact force to arise.

a) Reaction of a support (Solid-solid contact)

Rn
The force acting on an object placed on a horizontal support is called
the support reaction, Rn . Represents the result of all actions
performed on the contact surface. The object being in equilibrium
P
𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡 = 𝑃 + 𝑅𝑛 = 0 ⟹ 𝑃 = −𝑅𝑛
b) Friction force
Friction force is the force that opposes the movement of the body. There are two friction
forces: solid and fluid.
 Solid–Solid friction: dynamic friction force (the body is moving):
When the solid moves under the action of an external force𝐹𝑒 , the intensity fd of the friction
force is proportional to that of the reaction normal to the support𝑅𝑛 .
𝑓𝑑 = 𝜇𝑑 𝑅𝑛 R Rn
μd:the dynamic friction coefficient ً‫ِؼاًِ االحتىان اٌحرو‬
Note:static friction force (the body is fixed) 𝑓𝑠 = 𝜇𝑠 𝑅𝑛 F
𝑓𝑑
μs: the static friction coefficientًٔ‫ِؼاًِ االحتىان اٌسىى‬
 Friction forces in fluids
P
When a solid body moves in a fluid (gas or liquid), a friction force appears.
It is calculated by the formula:
𝑓𝑓 = −𝑘𝜂𝑣
k is the coefficient which depends on the shape of the solid body and η is the viscosity
coefficient.
c) Tension forces:

II.6. Cinematic moment (Angular momentum)

II.6.1. Angular momentum of a material point
We call angular momentum noted (𝐿𝑂 ) of point M rotating around a point O, the moment of
its quantity of movement 𝑃 = 𝑚𝑣 :
𝐿𝑂 = 𝑂𝑀 ∧ 𝑃 = 𝑟 ∧ 𝑚𝑣
The unit of angular momentum: Kg.m2.s-1
trajectory

plane of
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Chapter 2 Dynamics of a particle
The angular momentum is a vector perpendicular to the plane containing the vectors 𝑟and 𝑃.
 If the movement is circular with radius r, we will have
𝑟 ⊥ 𝑣 and 𝑣 = 𝜔𝑟
𝜋
𝐿𝑂 = 𝑟 ∧ 𝑚𝑣 ⟹ 𝐿𝑂 = 𝑟. 𝑚𝑣. 𝑠𝑖𝑛 = 𝑟𝑚𝑣 = 𝑚𝑟 2 𝜔
2
𝐿𝑂 = 𝑚𝑟 2 𝜔
 For a curvilinear plane movement, we use polar coordinates, with pole O:
𝑣 = 𝑟𝑢𝑟 + 𝑟𝜃 𝑢𝜃
𝐿𝑂 = 𝑟 ∧ 𝑚𝑣 = 𝑚𝑟 ∧ 𝑣 = 𝑚𝑟 ∧ 𝑟𝑢𝑟 + 𝑟𝜃 𝑢𝜃 = 𝑚𝑟 2 𝜃 𝑘 ⟹ 𝐿𝑂 = 𝑚𝑟 2 𝜃
II.6.2. Angular momentum theorem
At a fixed point O of a Galilean frame of reference, the derivative with respect to time of the
angular momentum of a material point is equal to the sum of the moments of all the forces
applied to it.
𝑑𝐿𝑂
= ℳ/𝑂 𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡
𝑑𝑡
Proof:
𝑑𝐿𝑂 𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑚𝑣 𝑚𝑑𝑣
𝐿𝑂 = 𝑟 ∧ 𝑃 = 𝑟 ∧ 𝑚𝑣 ⟹ = ∧ 𝑚𝑣 + 𝑟 ∧ = 𝑣 ∧ 𝑚𝑣 + 𝑟 ∧ = 𝑟 ∧ 𝑚𝑎
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
= 𝑟 ∧ 𝐹 = ℳ/𝑂 (𝐹 )
II.6.3. Conservation of angular momentum – central forces

a. Definition of a central force

We call “Central force” any force acting on a material point and having the following
properties:
* It is carried by the line joining the material point to a fixed point O (center of force).
* Its module depends only on the distance “r” to the point O:
𝐹 = 𝑓 𝑟 𝑢𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑂𝑀 = 𝑟𝑢𝑟 .
b. Conservation of angular momentum
The derivative of angular momentum vanishes (=0) if:
a. The particle is isolated 𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡 = 0: which means that the angular momentum of a free
𝑑𝐿𝑂
particle is constant = 0 ⟹ 𝐿𝑂 = 𝑐𝑡𝑒
𝑑𝑡

b. If the force 𝐹 is central: 𝐹 is parallel to 𝑟, so the angular momentum relative to the

center of forces is constant.
𝑑𝐿𝑂
= ℳ/𝑂 𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡 = 𝑟 ∧ 𝐹 = 0 𝑟// 𝐹 ⟹ 𝐿𝑂 = 𝑐𝑡𝑒 𝐿𝑂 isconserved
𝑑𝑡
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Chapter 2 Dynamics of a particle
The opposite is true;if the angular momentum is constant then the force is central.
II.6.4. Inertia forces or pseudo forces: a non-Galilean frame reference
Let R be a Galilean frame of reference and R' a non-Galilean frame of reference. R' is mobile
relative to R. The law of composition of accelerations gives:
𝑎𝑎 = 𝑎𝑟 + 𝑎𝑒 + 𝑎𝑐
The fundamental principle of dynamics in a Galilean frame R is written:
𝑑𝑣𝑎
𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡 = 𝑚𝑎𝑎 = 𝑚
𝑑𝑡
𝑎𝑎 and𝑣𝑎 are the absolute acceleration and speed.
In the non-Galilean (relative) frame R', the fundamental principle of dynamics is:

𝑎𝑟 = 𝑎𝑎 − 𝑎𝑒 − 𝑎𝑐 ⟹ 𝑚𝑎𝑟 = 𝑚𝑎𝑎 − 𝑚𝑎𝑒 − 𝑚𝑎𝑐 ⟹ 𝑚𝑎𝑟 = 𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡 + 𝐹𝑒 + 𝐹𝑐

with 𝐹𝑒 = −𝑚𝑎𝑒 (force of inertia of Entrainment),𝐹𝑐 = −𝑚𝑎𝑐 (force of Coriolis inertia) are
pseudo forces or forces of 'inertia. Therefore, the law of dynamics can be applied in a non-
Galilean frame of reference provided that the Entrainmentinertia force and the Coriolis inertia
force are added.

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