LESSON PROPER happy, any more than we can say that an acorn is a tree, for the

potential for a flourishing human life has not yet been realized. As
Module 7 EUDAIMONIA Aristotle says, "for as it is not one swallow or one fine day that
makes a spring, so it is not one day or a short time that makes a
Happiness as the Ultimate Purpose of Human Existence man blessed and happy."

One of Aristotle's most influential works is

the Nicomachean Ethics, where he presents a theory of
happiness that is still relevant today, over 2,300 years later. The The Hierarchical View of Nature
key question Aristotle seeks to answer in these lectures is "What
is the ultimate purpose of human existence?" What is that end or
goal for which we should direct all of our activities? Everywhere
we see people seeking pleasure, wealth, and a good reputation.
But while each of these has some value, none of them can
occupy the place of the chief good for which humanity should aim.
To be an ultimate end, an act must be self-sufficient and final,
"that which is always desirable in itself and never for the sake of
something else", and it must be attainable by man. Aristotle
claims that nearly everyone would agree that happiness is the end
which meets all these requirements. It is easy enough to see that
we desire money, pleasure, and honor only because we believe
that these goods will make us happy. It seems that all other goods
are a means towards obtaining happiness, while happiness is
always an end in itself.

The Greek word that usually gets translated as "happiness" Aristotle's vision of the hierarchy of beings
is eudaimonia, and like most translations from ancient
languages, this can be misleading. The main trouble is that In order to explain human happiness, Aristotle draws on a
happiness is often conceived of as a subjective state of mind, as view of nature he derived from his biological investigations. If we
when one says one is happy when one is enjoying a cool beer on look at nature, we notice that there are four different kinds of
a hot day, or is out "having fun" with one's friends. For Aristotle, things that exist in the world, each one defined by a different
however, happiness is a final end or goal that encompasses the purpose:
totality of one's life. It is not something that can be gained or lost
in a few hours, like pleasurable sensations. It is more like the 1. Mineral: rocks, metals and other lifeless things. The only goal
ultimate value of your life as lived up to this moment, measuring which these things seek is to come to a rest. They are "beyond
how well you have lived up to your full potential as a human stupid" since they are inanimate objects with no soul
being. For this reason, one cannot really make any 2. Vegetative: plants and other wildlife. Here we see a new kind
pronouncements about whether one has lived a happy life until it of thing emerge, something which is alive. Because plants seek
is over. For the same reason we cannot say that children are
nourishment and growth, they have souls and can be even said to Developing a good character requires a strong effort of will to do
be satisfied when they attain these goals the right thing, even in difficult situations.
3. Animal: all the creatures we study as belonging to the animal
kingdom. Here we see a higher level of life emerge: animals seek Aristotle would be strongly critical of the culture of "instant
pleasure and reproduction, and we can talk about a happy or sad gratification" which seems to predominate in our society today. In
dog, for example, to the extent that they are healthy and lead a order to achieve the life of complete virtue, we need to make the
pleasant life right choices, and this involves keeping our eye on the future, on
4. Human: what is it that makes human beings different from the the ultimate result we want for our lives as a whole. We will not
rest of the animal kingdom? Aristotle answers: Reason. Only achieve happiness simply by enjoying the pleasures of the
humans are capable of acting according to principles, and in so moment. Unfortunately, this is something most people are not
doing taking responsibility for their choices. We can blame Johnny able to overcome in themselves. As he laments, "the mass of
for stealing the candy since he knows it is wrong, but we would mankind are evidently quite slavish in their tastes, preferring a life
not blame an animal since it doesn't know any better. suitable to beasts". Later in the Ethics Aristotle draws attention to
the concept of akrasia, or weakness of the will. In many cases the
It seems that our unique function is to reason: by reasoning overwhelming prospect of some great pleasure obscures one's
things out we attain our ends, solve our problems, and hence live perception of what is truly good. Fortunately, this natural
a life that is qualitatively different in kind from plants or animals. disposition is curable through training, which for Aristotle meant
The good for a human is different from the good for an animal education and the constant aim to perfect virtue. As he puts it, a
because we have different capacities or potentialities. We have clumsy archer may indeed get better with practice, so long as he
a rational capacity and the exercising of this capacity is thus the keeps aiming for the target.
perfecting of our natures as human beings. For this reason, There is yet another activity few people engage in which is
pleasure alone cannot constitute human happiness, for pleasure required to live a truly happy life, according to Aristotle: intellectual
is what animals seek and human beings have higher capacities contemplation. Since our nature is to be rational, the ultimate
than animals. The goal is not to annihilate our physical urges, perfection of our natures is rational reflection. This means having
however, but rather to channel them in ways that are appropriate an intellectual curiosity which perpetuates that natural wonder to
to our natures as rational animals. know which begins in childhood but seems to be stamped out
soon thereafter. For Aristotle, education should be about the
The Pursuit of Happiness as the Exercise of Virtue cultivation of character, and this involves a practical and a
According to Aristotle, happiness consists in achieving, theoretical component. The practical component is the acquisition
through the course of a whole lifetime, all the goods — health, of a moral character, as discussed above. The theoretical
wealth, knowledge, friends, etc. — that lead to the perfection of component is the making of a philosopher. Here there is no
human nature and to the enrichment of human life. This requires tangible reward, but the critical questioning of things raises our
us to make choices, some of which may be very difficult. Often the minds above the realm of nature and closer to the abode of the
lesser good promises immediate pleasure and is more tempting, gods.
while the greater good is painful and requires some sort of
sacrifice. For example, it may be easier and more enjoyable to In conclusion, according to Aristotle, what is happiness?
spend the night watching television, but you know that you will be
better off if you spend it researching for your term paper.
 Happiness is the ultimate end and purpose of human exist, namely, ethical hedonism (a normative theory) and
existence psychological hedonism (a descriptive theory). Ethical hedonists
 Happiness is not pleasure, nor is it virtue. It is the exercise of maintain that one should seek pleasure or that pleasure is the
virtue. only thing worth seeking. Psychological hedonists claim that
 Happiness cannot be achieved until the end of one's life. pleasure is the only thing that humans (and presumably other
Hence it is a goal and not a temporary state. creatures) ever do seek.
 Happiness is the perfection of human nature. Since man is a
rational animal, human happiness depends on the exercise of
his reason.
 Happiness depends on acquiring a moral character, where
one displays the virtues of courage, generosity, justice,
friendship, and citizenship in one's life. These virtues involve
striking a balance or "mean" between an excess and a
deficiency.
 Happiness requires intellectual contemplation, for this is the
ultimate realization of our rational capacities.

Theories of Happiness
A. Hedonistic Theories

B. Life-satisfaction Theories

Hedonistic theories represent happiness as a ―balance of

Life-satisfaction and desire-satisfaction theories comprise a
pleasure over pain. To avoid terminological confusion, it should be
second category of theories of happiness. These two types of
made clear at this point that ‘hedonism‘ as used in philosophy
theories are very difficult to distinguish from each other. Desire-
ordinarily refers to something other than hedonism about
satisfaction theories describe happiness as the satisfaction of
psychological happiness. Two other basic types of hedonism
certain central desires (rarely do its proponents claim implausibly
that happiness is the satisfaction of all desires) for one‘s life. Life-
satisfaction theories describe happiness as the satisfaction of
certain standards or goals for one‘s life. Well, this is really
describing the same process: when we have standards or goals
for our lives, we desire their satisfaction or attainment, and when
we have a central desire for our lives, then inherent in this desire
is a goal or a standard towards which we strive. For this reason
the two types of theories are structurally identical, and simply
describe this process either from the perspective of the end-state
that is achieved (satisfaction of a standard or standards for one‘s
life), or from the perspective of the desire that is extinguished
through the satisfaction of the standard.

Just as physical pleasure or pain could result in positive or

negative affect, it seems that the satisfaction of these central
desires could result in happiness, but the satisfaction is not itself
happiness, even if it always were to result in happiness.

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