Q.1 What is Maxwell’s reciprocal theorem?

Q.2 Drive the expression for strain energy stored in an elastic member of
length L and cross section area A subjected to an external gradually applied
axial load W which creates extension δ.

Q.3 What is degree of indeterminacy for the structure? Discuss their classification.
A structural system that can be analyzed by using the equation of static equilibrium only is called
statically determinate structure i.e. reaction components and internal stresses can be calculated using static
equilibrium equations only. Eg: Simply supported beam. If it cannot be analyzed by the equation of static
equilibrium alone, then it is called a statically indeterminate structure. Eg: Fixed beam. A structural system is
said to be kinematically indeterminate if the displacement components of its joints cannot be determined by the
compatibility equation alone. Eg: Simply supported beam. If those unknown quantities can be found by using
compatibility equations alone then the structure is called kinematically determinate structure. Eg: Fixed beam.
But before calculating the degree of indeterminacy of a structure, it is good to know about its stability. If a
structure is unstable, then it doesn't matter whether it is statically determinate or indeterminate. In all cases,
such types of structures should be avoided in practice.

The degree of static indeterminacy or degree of redundancy shows the number of additional equations
required to solve the system. External indeterminacy is related to the support system of the structure whereas
internal indeterminacy is related to the internal stress in the members of the structure. The degree of kinematic
indeterminacy shows the number of unknown joint deformations.

Q.4 Define the following terms.

A) Principle of virtual work

B) Temperature effect on three hinged arches
• Increase in temperature causes an increase in the length of the arch since the hinge at crown is
not connected to any permanent object.
• Stresses are not produced in the arch due to the temperature change alone.

• As there is a rise in arch due to the temperature change, the horizontal thrust for the arch
already carrying a load will also alter.

• The decrease in the horizontal thrust due to the rise in temperature is given by

C) Effect of rib shortening on two hinge arches

In a two hinged arch, the normal thrust which is a compressive force along the axis of the arch
will shorten the rib of the arch. This in turn will release part of the horizontal thrust. Normally,
this effect is not considered in the analysis (in the case of two hinged arches). Depending upon
the importance of the work we can either take into account or omit the effect of rib shortening.
This will be done by considering (or omitting) strain energy due to axial compression along
with the strain energy due to bending in evaluating H.

Q.5 What do you understand by sway and Non sway analysis.

A frame is considered to be non-sway (braced) if it is sufficiently braced by lateral
bracing elements like structural walls. On the other hand, frames that provide lateral
resistance only through columns are considered to be sway frames (unbraced). ACI 318-
19 can be used as a reference to distinguish between sway and non-sway frames.
Differences between Sway Frames and Non-sway Frames

Sway (braced) Frames Non-sway (unbraced) Frames

Sway frames do not have adequate stiffness

Non-sway frame response to in-plane
against in-plane horizontal forces, hence,
horizontal forces is sufficiently stiff to
additional forces or moments arising from
neglect any additional forces or moments
horizontal displacements should be accounted
arising from horizontal displacements
for in the analysis

The structure is symmetric, and loading is

Loading is asymmetric
symmetric

It has in-plane displacements due to

It has only a rotational degree of freedom, and asymmetrical loading, different length of
translational degree of freedom does not exist supports, and/or different moment of
inertia

Joints do not change their position due to

Joints change their positions due to deformation
deformation

First-order analysis should always be

Second-order analysis should be used
used for the analysis of non-sway frame

Q.6 What are the assumption made in the analysis of a simple tress?

A truss is a structure that consists of a collection of structural elements connected

at pin joints or nodes. In theory, the pin joints provide no rotational resistance and
behave as hinges. In practice, this is not always the case. The benefit of a truss is
that the members are predominantly axially loaded. This means they are either in
compression, tension or have no force, so-called zero-force members. This makes
trusses a particularly efficient structural form. In this tutorial, we’ll discuss
common forms of truss, their features, approximate methods of analysis and the
key assumptions that relate to our analysis.

The assumptions made in finding out the forces in a frame are

1 The frame is a perfect frame.

2 The frame carries load at the joints.

3 All the members are pin-joint. It means members will have only axial force and
there will be no moment due to pin because at a pin moment becomes zero.
4 Load is applied at joints only.

5 Each joint of the truss is in equilibrium hence the whole frame or truss is also in
equilibrium.

6 The weight of the members of the truss is negligible.

7 There is no deflection in the members on application of load.

8 Stresses induced on application of force in the members is negligible .

Q.7 Explain clearly about strain energy and complementary energy method?

strain energy When an elastic material is deformed due to application of external force, internal
resistance is developed in the material of body due to deformation. Some work is done by the internal
resistance developed in the body which is stored in the form of energy. This energy is known as strain
energy.

Strain Energy in Gradual Load U = Average Load x Change in length = stress x strain x volume
Substituting the value of stress, strain, and volume of the section

The stress ζ due to gradual load is P/A.

This is the strain energy stored in a body. – Equation (A)

Strain Energy in Sudden Load The stress due to sudden load is found by equating the equation (A) in
the following equation. (B)
Complementary Strain Energy :The area enclosed by the inclined line and the
vertical axis is called the complementary strain energy. For a linearly elastic
materials the complementary strain energy and elastic strain energy are the same.

Q.8 Explain the importance of influence line diagram. Explain with suitable
examples.

An influence line is a curve, the ordinate of which at any point is equal to the
value of some structural quantity, when a unit load is placed at that point.

The structural quantity could be external support reactions, (e.g. vertical or

horizontal reactive forces or bending moments), internal stress resultants (e.g.
axial force, SF or BM) or deformations (e.g. slope and deflections). The above
definition can be explained by the following simple examples .
Q.9 What is the advantage of method of section over method of joints?
Method of joints -The method of joints is a process used to solve for the unknown forces acting on
members of a truss. The method centers on the joints or connection points between the members, and
it is most useful when you need to solve for all the unknown forces in a truss structure.

The joints are treated as particles subjected to force by the connected members and any applied loads.
As the joints are in equilibrium and the forces are concurrent, Σ𝐹=0 can be applied, but
the Σ𝑀=0 equation provides no information.

For planar trusses, each joint yields two scalar equations, Σ𝐹𝑥=0 and ,Σ𝐹𝑦=0, and so two unknowns can
be found. Therefore, a joint can be solved when there are one or two unknown forces and at least one
known force acting on it.

Forces are transferred from joint to joint by the connecting members, so when unknown forces on a
joint are found, the corresponding forces on adjacent joints are also found.

Method of sections -The method of sections is used to solve for the unknown forces within specific
members of a truss without solving for them all. The method involves dividing the truss into sections by
cutting through the selected members and analyzing the section as a rigid body. The advantage of the
Method of Sections is that the only internal member forces exposed are those which you have cut
through, the remaining internal forces are not exposed and thus ignored.
 Q.10 Classify the arches based on materials, shapes and structural system.

Arches are classified based on their material, shape, and structural system. In
terms of material, they can be made of stone, brick, concrete, or steel. Shape-
wise, common types include flat, segmental, semi-circular, pointed, and
horseshoe arches. Structurally, arches can be one-centered, two-centered, or
multiple-centered.
1. Classification by Material:
 Stone Arches: Can be further classified as ashlar or rubble arches, depending
on the stone's size and shape.
 Brick Arches: Can be rough, axed, gauged, or purpose-made, depending on the
brick's finish.
 Concrete Arches: Can be precast block units or cast-in-place monolithically.
 Steel Arches: Often used in modern construction for added stability and
flexibility.

2. Classification by Shape:
 Flat Arch: A straight line arch, often used for small spans.
 Segmental Arch: A curved arch with a segment of a circle as its curve.
 Semicircular Arch: A half-circle arch.
 Pointed Arch: An arch formed by two intersecting arcs, characteristic of Gothic
architecture.
 Horseshoe Arch: An arch with a curve that widens towards the top, common in
Islamic architecture.
 Venetian Arch: A modified form of a semicircular arch, often seen in Venetian
architecture.
 Semi-Elliptical Arch: An arch with a semi-elliptical curve.
 Stilted Arch: An arch with a vertical support or strut at the top.
 Relieving Arch: An arch that relieves stress on the arch below.

3. Classification by Structural System:

 One-Centered Arch: An arch formed with one center point.
 Two-Center Arch: An arch formed with two center points.
 Three-Center Arch: An arch formed with three center points.
 Four-Centered Arch: An arch formed with four center points.
 Five-Centered Arch: An arch formed with five center points.
 Rampant Arch: An arch with supports of varying heights.

4. Other Types of Arches:

 Parabolic Arch: A curved arch shaped like a parabola.
 Triangular Arch: An arch with a triangular shape.
 Jack Arch: An arch that supports a beam.
 Shoulder Arch: An arch that supports a wall.
 Bell Arch: An arch that is wider at the top than at the bottom.
 Multifoil Arch: An arch with multiple lobes or cusps.
 Ogee Arch: An arch with a S-shaped curve.
 Compound Arch: An arch formed by multiple layers of voussoirs.
 Rowlock Arch: A compound arch made with brick headers.

Q.11 State Eddy’s theorem in arches.

Q.12 What is EUDL?

Q.13 Write Castigliano’s first and second theorem.

Q.14 State the assumption made in slope deflection method for the analysis of
indeterminate structures.

This method was first proposed by Prof. George A. Maney in 1915. It is ideally
suited to the analysis of continuous beams and rigid jointed frames. Basic
unknowns like slopes and deflections of joints are found out. Moments at the
ends of a member is first written down in terms of unknown slopes and deflections
of end joints. Considering the joint equilibrium conditions, a set of equations are
formed and solutions of these simultaneous equations gives unknown slopes and
deflections. Then end moments of individual members are determined. It
involves solutions of simultaneous equations; a problem with more than three
unknowns is considered a difficult problem for hand calculations. Hence this
method was sidelined by moment distribution method with the help of computers;
solutions for any number of simultaneous equations can be obtained early. The
development of this method in the matrix form is “Stiffness Matrix Method” (it is
commonly used for the analysis of large structures with the help of computers.

Assumptions made in slope-deflection method

1. All joints are rigid.

2. The rotations of joints are treated as unknowns.

3. Between each pair of the supports the beam section is constant.

4. The joint in structure may rotate or deflect as a whole, but the angles between
the members meeting at that joint remain the same.

5. Distortions due to axial deformations are neglected.

6. Shear deformations are neglected.

Q.15 What is an Arch? Explain the differences between basic action of an

arch and a suspension cable.

Arch-An arch is a mechanical arrangement of wedge-shaped stone or brick blocks

that support each other and are supported at the ends by piers or abutments. An
arch, like lintels, supports the structure's weight above the opening. This article
has covered a variety of arch parts and components.

In other words, an arch is a curved structure composed of wedge-shaped units

(either bricks or stones) bonded together with a mortar and provided at openings
to support the weight of the wall above it as well as other superimposed loads.
Because of its shape, loads from the superstructures are distributed to supports
(pier or abutment).

Arches are most commonly built using Masonry and Concrete because of
their strength to withstand compression to a greater extent.
The arrangement of the bricks, blocks, or stones over the opening determines the
construction of traditional masonry arches. The voussoirs are wedge-shaped
blocks that are set flank-to-flank with the upper edge wider than the lower edge.
Downward pressure on the arch forces the voussoirs to come closer and bond
together. The voussoir that is located in the centre of the arch is nothing but the
keystone.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Arches

Arches are the structures mostly used to resist the higher flexural load. Arches can
be used in truss bridges, industrial roof structures, etc. Advantages of arches The
joints of an arch bridge are rigidly connected, and they can transfer more weight
through their span. Here some advantages and disadvantages of an arch bridge
structure are given below.

Advantages

 The arch structure has higher strength in comparison to other similar

structures.
 Arch structures like bridges get strengthened as time passes, unlike other
structures, because of the arches’ design.
 Arches can be made up of any material. It can be made of stones to
withstand a high amount of pressure.
 Arches structures look aesthetically pleasant over the other structures.

Disadvantages

 Construction of arches is difficult due to their design.

 Arches structures require stronger supports in comparison to other
structures.
  Arches structures do not have enough spans; It has only limited spans.
 Arches can be built only when it is suitable.
 Arches structures require maintenance regularly.
 The design of arch structures can be expensive.

Suspension cable- The main cables are suspended between towers and are finally
connected to the anchorage or the bridge itself, and vertical suspenders carry the
weight of the deck and the traffic load on it.

A typical suspension bridge is a continuous girder suspended by suspension

cables, which pass through the main towers with the aid of a special structure
known as a saddle, and end on big anchorages that hold them. Fig. 1.26 shows the
essential structural members and elements of typical, including tower,
hanger, main girder, and the anchorage. The main forces in a suspension bridge
are tension in the cables and compression in the towers. The deck, which is
usually a truss or a box girder, is connected to the suspension cables by vertical
suspender cables or rods, called hangers, which are also in tension. The weight is
transferred by the cables to the towers, which in turn transfer the weight to the
anchorages on both ends of the bridge, then finally to the ground.

Q.16 Define continuous beam. What are its advantages over simply
supported beam?

A structure consisting of two or more simple beams connected in a row is called a

continuous beam. In a continuous beam, the number of unknown reactions or
forces is greater than the number of equilibrium equations, resulting in an
indeterminate structure. While the reactions of a determinate structure can be
determined solely by equilibrium equations, additional conditions such as
compatibility of deformations are necessary for an indeterminate structure like a
continuous beam.

A continuous beam is a beam that is supported by more than two supports and can
be considered to be a group of simply supported beams joined together. It can be
imagined as a simply supported beam with one or more intermediary supports also
but the deflection is less in comparison to a simply supported beam.
advantages over simply supported beam

1. For the same span and section vertical load capacity is more.

2. Mid span deflectsion is less.

3. The depth at a section can be less than a simply support beam of the same span.

4. The continuous beam is economical in material.

5. There is redundancy in load path. Possibility of formation of hinges in case of an

extreme event.

6. Required less number of Anchorages of tendons.

Q.17 Explain the difference between Real work and virtual work. Also
explain the principle of virtual work for deformable bodies.

According to the principle of virtual work, It states, “If a system of forces acting
on a body or a system of bodies be in equilibrium, and the system be
imagined to undergo a small displacement consistent with the geometrical
conditions, then the algebraic sum of the virtual works done by all the forces
of the system is zero.”John Bernoulli devised this technique in 1717. We must be
extremely clear about the definitions of work, virtual work, and virtual
displacement to understand the principle of virtual work. When an object is
moved over a distance by an external force, at least a portion of that force must be
applied in the direction of the displacement. This is known as “work” in physics.
If the force is constant, work is calculated by multiplying the length of the path by
the component of the force acting along the path. Mathematically, the work can be
given as; W= f.d

Any system of forces that is in equilibrium is a virtual force. A virtual

displacement of a system can be defined as an infinitesimal displacement of any
mechanical system point that is compatible with the system’s constraints that may
or may not happen. so any displacement that is possible without violating any
constraints is referred to as a virtual displacement. In continuation of this, virtual
work is defined as, ”The work performed by a real force operating through a
virtual displacement or a virtual force acting through a real displacement is known
as virtual work.

Major Advantages of the Virtual Work Method –

1. It is not necessary to dismember the systems in order to establish relations

between the active forces. - Relations between active forces can be
determined directly without reference to the reactive forces.
2. The method is particularly useful in determining the position of
equilibrium of a system under known loads (This is in contrast to
determining the forces acting on a body whose equilibrium position is
known – studied earlier).
3. The method requires that internal frictional forces do negligible work
during any virtual displacement.
4. If internal friction is appreciable, work done by internal frictional forces
must be included in the analysis.

Q.18 What is BETTI’s theorem?