Basic Structures: Sets,

Functions, Sequences,
Sums, and Matrices
Chapter 2

With Question/Answer
Animations

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 Chapter Summary
• Sets
• The Language of Sets
• Set Operations
• Set Identities
• Functions
• Types of Functions
• Operations on Functions
• Computability
• Sequences and Summations
• Types of Sequences
• Summation Formulae
• Set Cardinality
• Countable Sets
• Matrices
• Matrix Arithmetic

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 Sets
Section 2.1

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 Section Summary
• Definition of sets
• Describing Sets
• Roster Method
• Set-Builder Notation
• Some Important Sets in Mathematics
• Empty Set and Universal Set
• Subsets and Set Equality
• Cardinality of Sets
• Tuples
• Cartesian Product
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 Introduction
• sets: basic building blocks for objects in discrete
mathematics
• important for counting
• programming languages have set operations
• set theory: important branch of mathematics
• many different systems of axioms have been used to
develop set theory
• we are not concerned with a formal set of axioms for
set theory
• instead, we will use naïve set theory
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 Sets
• set: an unordered collection of objects
• the students in this class
• the chairs in this room
• objects in a set are called elements, or members, of the
set; a set contains its elements
• the notation a ∈ A denotes that a is an element of set A
• if a is not a member of A, write a ∉ A

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 Describing a Set: Roster Method
• S = {a, b, c, d}
• order not important
• S = {a, b, c, d} = {b, c, a, d}
• each distinct object is either a member or not; listing
more than once does not change the set.
• S = {a, b, c, d} = {a, b, c, b, c, d}
• ellipses (…) may be used to describe a set without listing
all the members when the pattern is clear
• S = {a, b, c, d, …, z}

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 Roster Method Examples
• set of all vowels in the English alphabet
• V = {a, e, i, o, u}
• set of all odd positive integers less than 10
• O = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}
• set of all positive integers less than 100
• S = {1, 2, 3, …, 99}
• set of all integers less than 0
• S = {…, -3, -2, -1}

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 Some Important Sets
• N = natural numbers = {1, 2, 3, …}
• W = whole numbers = {0, 1, 2, 3, …}
• Z = integers = {…, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …}
• Z⁺ = positive integers = {1, 2, 3,…}
• R = set of real numbers
• R+ = set of positive real numbers
• C = set of complex numbers
• Q = set of rational numbers

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 Set-Builder Notation
• specify the property that all members must satisfy
• S = {x | x is a positive integer less than 100}
• O = {x | x is an odd positive integer less than 10}
• O = {x ∈ Z⁺ | x is odd and x < 10}
• a predicate may be used
• S = {x | P(x)}
• example: S = {x | Prime(x)}
• positive rational numbers
• Q+ = {x ∈ R | x = p/q, for some positive integers p,q}

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 Interval Notation
• [a, b] = {x | a ≤ x ≤ b}
• [a, b) = {x | a ≤ x < b}
• (a, b] = {x | a < x ≤ b}
• (a, b) = {x | a < x < b}

• closed interval [a, b]

a b
• open interval (a, b)
a b

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 Universal Set and Empty Set
• universal set U
• set containing everything currently under
consideration
• sometimes implicit
• sometimes explicitly stated
• contents depend on the context
• empty set: set with no elements
• symbolized with ∅ or { }

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 Venn Diagrams
• outer box represents universal set U
• all elements not in any set should be listed here for
reasonable finite sets
• inner circles represent individual sets
• example: A = {1, 3, 5, 7} B = {1, 2, 4, 5} U = {1, 2, …, 10}
U

2
3 1
A 5 B
John Venn
7 4 (1834-1923)
Cambridge, UK
6 8 9 10
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 Russell’s Paradox
• let S be the set of all sets which are not members of
themselves; a paradox results from trying to answer
the question “is S a member of itself?”
• related paradox
• Henry is a barber who shaves all men who do not
shave themselves
• a paradox results from trying to answer the question
“Does Henry shave himself?”

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 Some Things to Remember
• sets can be elements of sets
• {{1, 2, 3}, a, {b, c}}
• {N, Z, Q, R}
• the empty set is different from a set containing the
empty set
• ∅ ≠{∅}

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 Set Equality
• Definition: Two sets are equal if and only if they have
the same elements.
• therefore, sets A and B are equal if and only if
x (x  A  x  B)
• we write A = B if A and B are equal sets
• {1, 3, 5} = {3, 5, 1}
• {1, 5, 5, 5, 3, 3, 1} = {1, 3, 5}

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 Subsets
Definition: Set A is a subset of B if and only if every
element of A is also an element of B.
• the notation A ⊆ B is used to indicate that A is a
subset of the set B
• A ⊆ B holds if and only if x (x  A → x  B) is true
• since a ∈ ∅ is always false, ∅ ⊆ S for every set S
• since (a ∈ S) → (a ∈ S), S ⊆ S for every set S

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 Showing a Set Is or Is Not a
Subset of Another Set
• show A ⊆ B
• show that if x belongs to A, then x also belongs to B
• show A ⊈ B
• find an element x ∈ A and x ∉ B
• x is a counterexample to the claim that x ∈ A → x ∈ B
• examples
• the set of all computer science majors at your school
is a subset of all students at your school
• the set of integers with squares less than 100 is not a
subset of the set of nonnegative integers

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 Another Look at Equality of Sets
• A = B if and only if
x (x  A  x  B)
• using logical equivalences, A = B iff
x [(x ∈ A → x ∈ B)  (x ∈ B → x ∈ A)]
• which is equivalent to
A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A
or A = B

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 Proper Subsets
Definition: If A ⊆ B, but A ≠ B, then A is a proper subset
of B, denoted by A ⊂ B. If A ⊂ B, then
x (x ∈ A → x ∈ B)  ∃x (x ∈ B  x ∉ A)
is true
• it’s a subset, just not the whole set

Venn Diagram
U

B
A

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 Set Cardinality
• if there are exactly n distinct elements in S where n is a
nonnegative integer, S is finite
• otherwise, it is infinite
• the cardinality of a finite set A, denoted by |A|, is the
number of (distinct) elements of A
• examples
1. |∅| = 0
2. let S: letters of the English alphabet; then |S| = 26
3. |{1, 2, 3}| = 3
4. |{∅}| = 1
5. the set of integers is infinite

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 Power Sets
• power set: the set of all subsets of a set A
• denoted P(A)
• example: A = {a, b} then
P(A) = {∅, {a}, {b}, {a, b}}
• if a set has n elements, then the cardinality of the
power set is 2ⁿ

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 Tuples
• an ordered n-tuple (a1, a2, …, an) is an ordered collection
that has a1 as its first element, a2 as its second element,
and so on until an as its last element
• two n-tuples are equal if and only if their corresponding
elements are equal
• 2-tuples are called ordered pairs
• ordered pairs (a, b) and (c, d) are equal if and only if
a = c and b = d

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 Cartesian Product
• the Cartesian Product of two sets A and B,
denoted by A × B is the set of ordered pairs René Descartes
(a, b) where a ∈ A and b ∈ B (1596-1650)

A × B = {(a, b) | a ∈ A  b ∈ B}
• example
A = {a,b} B = {1,2,3}
A × B = {(a, 1), (a, 2), (a, 3), (b, 1), (b, 2), (b, 3)}
• a subset R of the Cartesian product A × B is called a
relation from the set A to the set B (Chapter 9)

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 Cartesian Product
• the Cartesian products of the sets A1, A2,……, An,
denoted by A1 × A2 × …… × An, is the set of ordered
n-tuples (a1, a2,…, an) where ai belongs to Ai for i = 1, …, n
A1  A2   An =
( a , a
1 2 , an ) | ai  Ai for i = 1, 2, n

• example: what is A × B × C where

A = {0, 1}, B = {1, 2} and C = {0, 1, 2}
• solution: A × B × C =
{(0, 1, 0), (0, 1, 1), (0, 1, 2), (0, 2, 0), (0, 2, 1), (0, 2, 2),
(1, 1, 0), (1, 1, 1), (1, 1, 2), (1, 2, 0), (1, 2, 1), (1, 2, 2)}

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 Truth Sets of Quantifiers
• Given a predicate P and a domain D, we define the
truth set of P to be the set of elements in D for which
P(x) is true
• the truth set of P(x) is denoted by
{x ∈ D | P(x)}
• example: the truth set of P(x) where the domain is
the integers and P(x): |x| = 1 is the set {-1, 1}

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 Set Operations
Section 2.2

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 Section Summary
• Set Operations
• Union
• Intersection
• Complementation
• Difference
• More on Set Cardinality
• Set Identities
• Proving Identities
• Membership Tables

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 Boolean Algebra
• propositional calculus and set theory are both instances
of an algebraic system called Boolean Algebra
• the operators in set theory are analogous to the
corresponding operator in propositional calculus
• as always there must be a universal set U; all sets are
assumed to be subsets of U

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 Union
Definition: Let A and B be sets. The union of the sets A
and B, denoted by A ∪ B, is the set:
{x | x ∈ A  x ∈ B}
Example: What is {1, 2, 3} ∪ {3, 4, 5}?
Solution: {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

Venn Diagram for A ∪ B

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 Intersection
Definition: The intersection of sets A and B, denoted
by A ∩ B, is
{x | x ∈ A  x ∈ B}
Note if the intersection is empty, then A and B are
said to be disjoint.
Example: What is? {1, 2, 3} ∩ {3, 4, 5} ?
Solution: {3}
Venn Diagram for A ∩ B
Example:What is {1, 2, 3} ∩ {4, 5, 6} ?
Solution: ∅

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 Complement
Definition: If A is a set, then the complement of the
A (with respect to U), denoted by Ā, is the set U – A
Ā = {x | x ∈ U  x ∉ A}
• Ā is sometimes denoted Ac
Example: If U is the positive integers less than 100,
what is the complement of {x | x > 70}
Solution: {x | x ≤ 70}
Venn Diagram for Complement

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 Difference
Definition: The difference of sets A and B, denoted by
A – B, is the set containing the elements of A that are
not in B.
A – B = {x | x ∈ A  x ∉ B} = A ∩ ĀB
• A – B is also called the complement of B with respect
to A

Venn Diagram for A − B

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 The Cardinality of the Union of
Two Sets
Inclusion-Exclusion
|A ∪ B| = |A| + | B| − |A ∩ B|

Example: Let A be the math majors in your class and B be

the CS majors. To count the number of students who are
either math majors or CS majors, add the number of math
majors and the number of CS majors, and subtract the
number of joint CS/math majors.

Venn Diagram for A, B,

A ∩ B, A ∪ B

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 Review Questions
• Example: U = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, B = {4, 5, 6, 7, 8}
1. A ∪ B
Solution: {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}
2. A ∩ B
Solution: {4, 5}
3. Ā
Solution: {0, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
ഥ
4. B
Solution: {0, 1, 2, 3, 9, 10}
5. A – B
Solution: {1, 2, 3}
6. B – A
Solution: {6, 7, 8}
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 Symmetric Difference
Definition: The symmetric difference of A and B,
denoted by A  B is the set
( A − B )  ( B − A)
Example:
U = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} B ={4, 5, 6, 7, 8}
What is A  B :

Solution: {1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8}
Venn Diagram
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 Set Identities
Identity laws
A = A A U = A
Domination laws
A U = U A = 
Idempotent laws
A A = A A A = A
Complementation law
( A) = A
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 Set Identities
Commutative laws
A B = B  A A B = B  A
Associative laws
A  ( B  C ) = ( A  B)  C
A  ( B  C ) = ( A  B)  C
Distributive laws
A  ( B  C ) = ( A  B)  ( A  C )
A  ( B  C ) = ( A  B)  ( A  C )
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 Set Identities
De Morgan’s laws

A B = A B A B = A B
Absorption laws
A  ( A  B) = A A  ( A  B) = A

Complement laws

A A =U A A = 

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 Proving Set Identities
• Different ways to prove set identities:
• Prove that each set (side of the identity) is a subset
of the other.
• Use set builder notation and propositional logic.
• Membership Tables: Verify that elements in the same
combination of sets always either belong or do not
belong to the same side of the identity. Use 1 to
indicate it is in the set and a 0 to indicate that it is
not

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 Proof of Second De Morgan Law
• Example: Prove that A B = A B

• Solution: We prove this identity by showing that:

1) A  B  A  B and
2) A  B  A  B

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 Proof of Second De Morgan Law
• These steps show that: A B  A B

x A B by assumption
x A B defn. of complement
 ( ( x  A )  ( x  B ) ) by defn. of intersection
 ( x  A )   ( x  B ) 1st De Morgan law for Prop Logic
x A xB defn. of negation
x A xB defn. of complement
x A B by defn. of union

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 Proof of Second De Morgan Law
• These steps show that: A B  A B

x A B by assumption
( x  A)  ( x  B ) by defn. of union

( x  A)  ( x  B ) defn. of complement
 ( x  A)   ( x  B ) defn. of negation
 ( ( x  A)   ( x  B ) ) 1st De Morgan law for Prop Logic
( x  A  B) defn. of intersection
x A B defn. of complement

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 Set-Builder Notation: Second De
Morgan Law
A B = x A B by defn. of complement
 
= x |  ( x  ( A  B ) ) by defn. of does not belong symbol
=  x |  ( x  A  x  B by defn. of intersection
=  x |  ( x  A )   ( x  B ) by 1st De Morgan law for
Prop Logic
=  x | x  A  x  B by defn. of not belong symbol


= x | x A xB  by defn. of complement

=  x | x  A  B by defn. of union
= A B by meaning of notation

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 Membership Table
• Example: Construct a membership table to show
that the distributive law holds.
A  ( B  C ) = ( A  B)  ( A  C )
• Solution:
A B C B ∩ C A ∪ (B ∩ C) A ∪ B A ∪ C (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C)
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1
1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
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 Generalized Unions and
Intersections
• Let A1, A2 ,…, An be an indexed collection of sets.
• We define:
n
Ai = A1  A2   An
i =1
n
Ai = A1  A2   An
i =1

• These are well defined, since union and

intersection are associative.
• For i = 1,2,…, let Ai = {i, i + 1, i + 2, ….}. Then,
n n
Ai = i, i + 1, i + 2,  = 1, 2,3, 
i =1 i =1
n n
Ai = i, i + 1, i + 2,  = n, n + 1, n + 2,  = An
i =1 i =1
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 Functions
• Section 2.3

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 Section Summary
• Definition of a Function
• Domain, Codomain
• Image, Preimage
• Injection, Surjection, Bijection
• Inverse Function
• Function Composition
• Graphing Functions
• Floor, Ceiling, Factorial
• Partial Functions (optional)
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 Functions
• Definition: Let A and B be nonempty sets. A
function f from A to B, denoted f: A → B is
an assignment of each element of A to
exactly one element of B. We write f(a) = b
if b is the unique element of B assigned by
the function f to the element a of A.
• Functions are sometimes
called mappings
or transformations.

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 Functions
• A function f: A → B can also be defined as a
subset of A×B (a relation). This subset is
restricted to be a relation where no two
elements of the relation have the same first
element.
• Specifically, a function f from A to B contains
one, and only one ordered pair (a, b) for every
element a∈ A. x  x  A → y  y  B  ( x, y )  f  
 
• and
x, y1 , y2  ( x, y1 )  f  ( x, y2 )  f  → y1 = y2 

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 Functions
Given a function f: A → B:
• We say f maps A to B or f is a mapping from A to B.
• A is called the domain of f.
• B is called the codomain of f.
• If f(a) = b,
• then b is called the image of a under f.
• a is called the preimage of b.
• The range of f is the set of all images of points in A under
f. We denote it by f(A).
• Two functions are equal when they have the same domain,
the same codomain and map each element of the domain to
the same element of the codomain.
Jump to long description
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 Representing Functions
• functions may be specified in different ways
• an explicit statement of the assignment
• example: students and grades
• a formula
• example: f(x) = x + 1
• a computer program
• example: a Java program that when given an integer
n, produces the nth Fibonacci Number

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 Practice Questions
f(a) = ? z
The image of d is ? z
The domain of f is ? A
The codomain of f is ? B
The preimage of y is ? b
The range of f, f(A) = ? {y, z}
The preimage(s) of z is (are) ? {a, c, d}
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 Questions on Functions and Sets
• if f: A →B and S is a subset of A, then
f(S) = {f(s) | s ∈ S}

• f{a, b, c} is ? {y,z}
• f{c, d} is ? {z}

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 Injections (one-to-one)
Definition: A function f is said to be one-to-one, or
injective, if and only if f(a) = f(b) implies that a = b for
all a and b in the domain of f.
• i.e., each element in the codomain has no more than 1
arrow pointing to it

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 Surjections (onto)
Definition: A function f from A to B is called onto, or
surjective, if and only if for every element b ∈ B there
is an element a ∈ A with f(a) = b
• i.e., every element in B has at least one arrow pointing
to it

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 Bijections
• Definition: A function f is a bijection if it is both
one-to-one and onto (surjective and injective).
• also termed one-to-one correspondence

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 Showing f Is one-to-one Or onto
• suppose that f : A → B
• to show that f is injective
• show that if f(x) = f(y) for arbitrary x, y ∈ A, then
x=y
• to show that f is not injective
• find particular elements x, y ∈ A such that x ≠ y and
f(x) = f(y)
• to show that f is surjective
• consider an arbitrary element y ∈ B and find an
element x ∈ A such that f(x) = y
• to show that f is not surjective
• find a particular y ∈ B such that f(x) ≠ y for all x ∈ A
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 Showing f Is one-to-one Or onto
• Example 1: Let f be the function from {a, b, c, d} to
{1, 2, 3} defined by f(a) = 3, f(b) = 2, f(c) = 1, and f(d) =
3. Is f an onto function?
• Solution: Yes, f is onto since all three elements of the
codomain are images of elements in the domain. If the
codomain were changed to {1, 2, 3, 4}, f would not be
onto.
• Example 2: Is the function f(x) = x2 from the set of
integers to the set of integers onto?
• Solution: No, f is not onto because there is no integer
x with x2 = −1, for example.

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 Inverse Functions
Definition: Let f be a bijection from A to B. Then the
inverse of f, denoted f-1, is the function from B to A
defined as f-1 (y) = x iff f(x) = y.
• no inverse exists unless f is a bijection (why?)

Jump to long description

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 Inverse Functions

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 Questions
• Example 1: Let f be the function from {a,b,c} to {1, 2,
3} such that f(a) = 2, f(b) = 3, and f(c) = 1. Is f
invertible and if so, what is its inverse?

• Solution: The function f is invertible because it is a

one-to-one correspondence. The inverse function f−1
reverses the correspondence given by f, so f−1 (1) = c,
f−1 (2) = a, and f−1 (3) = b.

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 Questions
• Example 2: Let f: Z → Z be such that f(x) = x + 1. Is f
invertible, and if so, what is its inverse?

• Solution: The function f is invertible because it is a

one-to-one correspondence. The inverse function f−1
reverses the correspondence so f−1 (y) = y −1.

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 Questions
Example 3: Let f: R → R be such that f(x) = x2. Is f
invertible, and if so, what is its inverse?

Solution: The function f is not invertible because it is

not one-to-one.

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 Composition
Definition: Let f: B→C and g: A→B. The composition of
f with g, denoted f  g, is the function from A to C
defined by
(f  g)(x) = f(g(x))

Jump to long description

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 Composition

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 Composition
• Example 1: If f(x) = x2 and g(x) = 2x + 1, then
f(g(x)) = (2x + 1) 2
and
g(f(x)) = 2x2 + 1

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 Composition Questions
• Example 2: Let g be the function from the set {a, b, c}
to itself such that g(a) = b, g(b) = c, and g(c) = a. Let f
be the function from the set {a, b, c} to the set {1, 2,
3} such that f(a) = 3, f(b) = 2, and f(c) = 1.
• What is the composition of f and g, and what is the
composition of g and f?
• Solution: The composition f ∘ g is defined by

f g ( a ) = f ( g ( a ) ) = f ( b ) = 2.
f g ( b ) = f ( g ( b ) ) = f ( c ) = 1.
f g ( c ) = f ( g ( c ) ) = f ( a ) = 3.

Note that g ∘ f is not defined, because the range of f is

not a subset of the domain of g.
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Composition Questions
• Example 2: Let f and g be functions from the set of
integers to the set of integers defined by

f ( x) = 2x + 3 and g ( x ) = 3x + 2.

• What is the composition of f and g, and also the

composition of g and f ?
• Solution:

𝑓∘𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑓 3𝑥 + 2 = 2 3𝑥 + 2 + 3 = 6𝑥 + 7

𝑔 ∘ 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑔(2𝑥 + 3) = 3(2𝑥 + 3) + 2 = 6𝑥 + 11

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 Graphs of Functions
Let f be a function from the set A to the set B. The
graph of the function f is the set of ordered pairs
( a, b ) | a  A and f ( a ) = b.

Graph of f(n) = 2n + 1 Graph of f(x) = x2

from Z to Z from Z to Z
Jump to long description
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Some Important Functions
The floor function, denoted

f ( x ) =  x
is the largest integer less than or equal to x

The ceiling function, denoted

f ( x ) =  x
is the smallest integer greater than or equal to x

Example:
3.5 =  3.5 = 
−1.5 = − −1.5 = −
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Floor and Ceiling Functions

𝑦= 𝑥 𝑦= 𝑥

• Graph of (a) Floor and (b) Ceiling Functions

Jump to long description

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Factorial Function
Definition: f: N → Z+, denoted by f(n) = n! is the
product of the first n positive integers when n is a
nonnegative integer.

f ( n ) = 1  2  ( n –1)  n, f ( 0 ) = 0! = 1

Stirling’s Formula:

Examples:
f (1) = 1! = 1
f ( 2 ) = 2! = 1  2 = 2
f ( 6 ) = 6! = 1  2  3  4  5  6 = 720
f ( 20 ) = 2, 432,902, 008,176, 640, 000.
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Sequences and
Summations
• Section 2.4

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 Section Summary
• Sequences.
• Examples: Geometric Progression, Arithmetic
Progression
• Recurrence Relations
• Example: Fibonacci Sequence
• Summations
• Special Integer Sequences (optional)

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 Introduction
• Sequences are ordered lists of elements.
• 1, 2, 3, 5, 8
• 1, 3, 9, 27, 81, …….
• Sequences arise throughout mathematics, computer
science, and in many other disciplines, ranging from
botany to music.
• We will introduce the terminology to represent
sequences and sums of the terms in the sequences.

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 Sequences
• Definition: A sequence is a function from a subset of
the integers (usually either the set {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, …..} or
{1, 2, 3, 4, ….}) to a set S.
• The notation an is used to denote the image of the
integer n. We can think of an as the equivalent of f(n)
where f is a function from {0,1,2,…..} to S. We call an a
term of the sequence.

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 Sequences
• Example: Consider the sequence an where

1
an = an  = a1 , a2 , a3 ...
n
1 1 1
1, , ,
2 3 4

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 Geometric Progression
• Definition: A geometric progression is a sequence
of the form: 𝑎, 𝑎𝑟 1 , 𝑎𝑟 2 , …, 𝑎𝑟 𝑛 ,…

• where the initial term a and the common ratio r

are real numbers.
Examples :
1. Let a = 1and r = −1. Then :
bn  = b0 , b1 , b2 , b3 , b4 ,... = 1, − 1, 1, − 1, 1,...
2. Let a = 2 and r = 5. Then :
cn  = c0 , c1 , c2 , c3 , c4 ,... = 2, 10, 50, 250, 1250,...
3. Let a = 6 and r = 1/ 3. Then :
 2 2 2 
 n  0 1 2 3 4  
d = d , d , d , d , d ,... = 6, 2, , , ,...
 3 9 27 
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Arithmetic Progression
• Definition: A arithmetic progression is a sequence
of the form: a, a + d , a + 2d ,..., a + nd ,...
• where the initial term a and the common
difference d are real numbers.
Examples :
1. Let a = −1and d = 4 :
sn  = s0 , s1 , s2 , s3 , s4 ,... = 1, − 1, 1, − 1, 1,...
2. Let a = 7 and d = −3 :
tn  = t0 , t1 , t2 , t3 , t4 ,... = 7, 4, 1, − 2, − 5,...
3. Let a = 1and d = 2 :
un  = u0 , u1 , u2 , u3 , u4 ,... = 1, 3, 5, 7, 9,...
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Strings
• Definition: A string is a finite sequence of characters
from a finite set (an alphabet).
• Sequences of characters or bits are important in
computer science.
• The empty string is represented by λ.
• The string abcde has length 5.

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 Recurrence Relations
• Definition: A recurrence relation for the sequence
{an} is an equation that expresses an in terms of one or
more of the previous terms of the sequence, namely,
a0, a1, …, an−1, for all integers n with n ≥ n0, where n0 is a
nonnegative integer.
• A sequence is called a solution of a recurrence relation
if its terms satisfy the recurrence relation.
• The initial conditions for a sequence specify the terms
that precede the first term where the recurrence
relation takes effect.

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 Questions about Recurrence
Relations
• Example 1: Let {an} be a sequence that satisfies the
recurrence relation an = an−1 + 3 for n = 1,2,3,4,…. and
suppose that a0 = 2. What are a1 , a2 and a3?
[Here a0 = 2 is the initial condition.]
• Solution: We see from the recurrence relation that

a1 = a0 + 3 = 2 + 3 = 5
a2 = 5 + 3 = 8
a3 = 8 + 3 = 11

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 Questions about Recurrence
Relations
• Example 2: Let {an} be a sequence that satisfies the
recurrence relation an = an-1 – an-2 for n = 2,3,4,…. and
suppose that a0 = 3 and a1 = 5. What are a2 and a3?
• [Here the initial conditions are a0 = 3 and a1 = 5. ]
• Solution: We see from the recurrence relation that

a2 = a1 − a0 = 5 − 3 = 2
a3 = a2 − a1 = 2 − 5 = −3

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 Fibonacci Sequence
• Definition: Define the Fibonacci sequence, f0 ,f1 ,f2,…,
by
• initial conditions: f0 = 0, f1 = 1
• recurrence relation: fn = fn−1 + fn−2

• Example: Find f2 ,f3 ,f4 , f5 and f6 .

Answer :
f 2 = f1 + f 0 = 1 + 0 = 1,
f3 = f 2 + f1 = 1 + 1 = 2,
f 4 = f3 + f 2 = 2 + 1 = 3,
f5 = f 4 + f 3 = 3 + 2 = 5,
f 6 = f5 + f 4 = 5 + 3 = 8.
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Solving Recurrence Relations
• Finding a formula for the nth term of the sequence
generated by a recurrence relation is called solving the
recurrence relation.
• Such a formula is called a closed, or closed-form,
formula.
• Various methods for solving recurrence relations will be
covered in Chapter 8.
• Here we illustrate by example the method of iteration
in which we need to guess the formula. The guess can
be proved correct by induction (Chapter 5).

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 Iterative Solution Example
• Method 1: Working upward, forward substitution. Let
{an} be a sequence that satisfies the recurrence relation
an = an−1 + 3 for n = 2,3,4,…. and suppose that a1 = 2.
a2 = 2 + 3
a3 = (2 + 3) + 3 = 2 + 3 ∙ 2
a4 = (2 + 3 ∙ 2) + 3 = 2 + 3 ∙ 3
.
.
.
an = an-1 + 3 = (2 + 3 ∙ (n – 2)) + 3 = 2 + 3(n − 1)

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 Iterative Solution Example
• Method 2: Working downward, backward substitution.
Let {an} be a sequence that satisfies the recurrence
relation an = an−1 + 3 for n = 2,3,4,…. and suppose that
a1 = 2.
• an = an-1 + 3
• = (an-2 + 3) + 3 = an-2 + 3 ∙ 2
= (an-3 + 3 )+ 3 ∙ 2 = an-3 + 3 ∙ 3
.
.
.
• = a2 + 3(n − 2) = (a1 + 3) + 3(n − 2) = 2 + 3(n − 1)
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Financial Application
• Example: Suppose that a person deposits $10,000.00 in
a savings account at a bank yielding 11% per year with
interest compounded annually. How much will be in the
account after n years?
• Let Pn denote the amount in the account after n years.
Pn satisfies the following recurrence relation:
Pn = Pn−1 + 0.11Pn−1 = (1.11) Pn−1
with the initial condition P0 = 10,000

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 Financial Application
• Pn = Pn−1 + 0.11Pn−1 = (1.11) Pn−1
with the initial condition P0 = 10,000

• Solution: Forward Substitution

P1 = (1.11)P0
P2 = (1.11)P1 = (1.11)2P0
P3 = (1.11)P2 = (1.11)3P0
:
Pn = (1.11)Pn−1 = (1.11)nP0 = (1.11)n 10,000
Pn = (1.11)n 10,000

P30 = (1.11)30 10,000 = $228,992.97

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Special Integer Sequences
• Given a few terms of a sequence, try to identify the
sequence. Conjecture a formula, recurrence relation, or
some other rule.
• some questions to ask
• are there repeated terms of the same value?
• can you obtain a term from the previous term by
adding an amount or multiplying by an amount?
• can you obtain a term by combining the previous terms
in some way?
• are there cycles among the terms?
• do the terms match those of a well known sequence?

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 Questions on Special Integer
Sequences
• Example 1: Find formula for the sequences with the
following first five terms: 1, ½, ¼, 1/8, 1/16
Solution: Note that the denominators are powers of 2.
The sequence with an = 1/2n is a possible match. This is a
geometric progression with a = 1 and r = ½.
• Example 2: Consider 1,3,5,7,9
Solution: Note that each term is obtained by adding 2
to the previous term. A possible formula is an = 2n + 1.
This is an arithmetic progression with a =1 and d = 2.
• Example 3: 1, -1, 1, -1,1
Solution: The terms alternate between 1 and -1. A
possible sequence is an = (−1)n . This is a geometric
progression with a = 1 and r = −1.
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Questions on Special Integer
Sequences
• TABLE 1 Some Useful Sequences.
nth Term First 10 Terms
n2 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100,…

n3 1, 8, 27, 64, 125, 216, 343, 512, 729, 1000,…

n4 1, 16, 81, 256, 625, 1296, 2401, 4096, 6561, 10000,…

fn 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89,…

2n 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, 256, 512, 1024,…

3n 3, 9, 27, 81, 243, 729, 2187, 6561, 19683, 59049,…

n! 1, 2, 6, 24, 120, 720, 5040, 40320, 362880, 3628800,…

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 Guessing Sequences
• Example: Conjecture a simple formula for an if the first
10 terms of the sequence {an} are 1, 7, 25, 79, 241, 727,
2185, 6559, 19681, 59047.
Solution: Note the ratio of each term to the previous
approximates 3. So now compare with the sequence 3n .
We notice that the nth term is 2 less than the
corresponding power of 3. So a good conjecture is that
an = 3n − 2.

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 Integer Sequences
• integer sequences appear in a wide range of contexts
• sequence of prime numbers (Chapter 4)
• number of ways to order n discrete objects (Chapter 6)
• number of moves needed to solve the Tower of Hanoi
puzzle with n disks (Chapter 8)
• number of rabbits on an island over time (Chapter 8)
• integer sequences are useful in many fields such as
biology, engineering, chemistry and physics
• On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences (OESIS)
contains over 200,000 sequences
[Link]

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 Integer Sequences
• Here are three interesting sequences to try from the OESIS site. To
solve each puzzle, find a rule that determines the terms of the sequence.
• Guess the rules for forming for the following sequences:
• 2, 3, 3, 5, 10, 13, 39, 43, 172, 177, ...
• Hint: Think of adding and multiplying by numbers to generate this
sequence.
• 0, 0, 0, 0, 4, 9, 5, 1, 1, 0, 55, ...
• Hint: Think of the English names for the numbers representing the
position in the sequence and the Roman Numerals for the same
number.
• 2, 4, 6, 30, 32, 34, 36, 40, 42, 44, 46, ...
• Hint: Think of the English names for numbers, and whether or not
they have the letter 'e'
• The answers and many more can be found at [Link]

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 Summations
Sum of the terms am , am + 1,..., an
from the sequence an 
The notation:
n

a  
n
j j =m
aj m  j n
aj
j =m

represents
am + am +1 +  + an
• The variable j is called the index of summation. It runs
through all the integers starting with its lower limit m
and ending with its upper limit n.

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 Summations
More generally for a set S :
 js
aj
Examples:
n
r + r + r + r +  + r =  r
0 1 2 3 n j

0

1 1 1 1
1 + + + +  = 
2 3 4 1 i

If S = 2,5, 7,10 then a

js
j = a2 + a5 + a7 + a10

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 Summation Properties
• scalar product: can move scalar outside summation
3 3

෍ 2𝑖 = 2 ෍ 𝑖
𝑖=1 𝑖=1
• addition: can separate
3 3 3

෍(𝑖 + 2) = ෍ 𝑖 + ෍ 2
𝑖=1 𝑖=1 𝑖=1

• sum of one step

3

෍𝑖 = 3
𝑖=3

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 Summation Properties
• sum of scalars: multiply by number of steps (n – m + 1)
4

෍2 = 6
𝑖=2
• example
4

෍ 3𝑖 + 4 =
𝑖=2
4 4

3෍𝑖 + ෍4 =
𝑖=2 𝑖=2

3(2 + 3 + 4) + 4(4 – 2 + 1) = 3(9) + 4(3) = 39

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 Summation Properties
• nested: work from innermost to outermost
3 4

෍෍ 𝑖 + 𝑗 =
𝑖=1 𝑗=2
3

෍ 𝑖+2+𝑖+3+𝑖+4 =
𝑖=1
3

෍ 3𝑖 + 9 =
𝑖=1
3 3

3 ෍ 𝑖 + ෍ 9 = 3(1 + 2 + 3) + 9 3 = 45
𝑖=1 𝑖=1

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 Product Notation (optional)

Product of the terms am , am + 1,..., an

from the sequence an 
The notation:
n

a  
n
j j =m
aj m  j n
aj
j =m

represents
am  am +1  an

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 Geometric Series
Sums of terms of geometric progressions
 ar n +1
−a
n
 r 1
 ar =  r − 1
j

j =0  ( n + 1) a r = 1

n
Proof: Let S n =  ar j To compute Sn , first
j =0
n
multiply both sides of
rS n = r  ar j the equality by r and
j =0 then manipulate the
n
resulting sum as follows:
=  ar j +1
j =0
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Geometric Series
n
=  ar j +1 From previous slide.
j =0

n +1
=  ar k Shifting the index of summation with k = j + 1.
k =1

 n  Removing k = n + 1 term and

=   ar k  + ( ar n +1 − a ) adding k = 0 term.
 k =0 
= S n + ( ar n +1 − a ) Substituting S for summation formula
 rS n = S n + ( ar n +1 − a )

ar n +1 − a
Sn = if r ≠1
r −1
n n
S n =  ar =  a = ( n + 1) a
j
if r = 1
j =0 j =0
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Some Useful Summation Formulae
TABLE 2 Some Useful Summation Formulae.
Sum Closed From Geometric Series:
n
ar n +1 − a we just proved this
 ar ( r  0 )
k =0
k

r −1
, r 1
n
n ( n + 1)
k
k =1 2
Later we will
n
n ( n + 1)( 2n + 1)
prove some
k2
k =1 6
of these by
induction.
n 2 ( n + 1)
n 2

k
k =1
3

4


 ,| x |< 1
x k 1
1− x
k =0
Proof in text

1
 kx
k =0
k −1
,| x |< 1
(1 − x )
2
(requires calculus)

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 Cardinality of Sets
• Section 2.5

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 Section Summary
• Cardinality
• Countable Sets
• Computability

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 Cardinality
• Definition: The cardinality of a set A is equal to the
cardinality of a set B, denoted |A| = |B|,
• if and only if there is a one-to-one correspondence
(i.e., a bijection) from A to B
• if there is a one-to-one function (i.e., an injection)
from A to B, the cardinality of A is less than or the
same as the cardinality of B and we write |A| ≤ |B|
• when |A| ≤ |B| and A and B have different cardinality,
we say that the cardinality of A is less than the
cardinality of B and write |A| < |B|

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 Cardinality
• Definition: A set that is either finite or has the same
cardinality as the set of positive integers (Z+) is called
countable. A set that is not countable is uncountable.
• The set of real numbers R is an uncountable set.
• When an infinite set is countable (countably infinite),
its cardinality is ℵ0 (where ℵ is aleph, the 1st letter of
the Hebrew alphabet). We write |S| = ℵ0 and say that
S has cardinality "aleph null."

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 Showing that a Set is Countable
• An infinite set is countable if and only if it is possible
to list the elements of the set in a sequence (indexed
by the positive integers).
• In other words, a one-to-one correspondence f from
the set of positive integers to a set S can be
expressed in terms of a sequence a1,a2,…, an ,… where
a1 = f(1), a2 = f(2),…, an = f(n),…

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 Hilbert’s Grand Hotel
The Grand Hotel (example due to David
Hilbert) has a countably infinite number
of rooms, each occupied by a guest. We
can always accommodate a new guest at David Hilbert
this hotel. How is this possible?
Explanation: Because the rooms of
Grand Hotel are countable, we can list
them as Room 1, Room 2, Room 3, and so
on. When a new guest arrives, we move
the guest in Room 1 to Room 2, the guest
The hotel can also
in Room 2 to Room 3, and in general the
accommodate a countable
guest in Room n to Room n + 1, for all
number of new guests, and
positive integers n. This frees up Room
all the guests on a countable
1, which we assign to the new guest, and
number of buses where each
all the current guests still have rooms.
bus contains a countable
number of guests.
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Showing that a Set is Countable
• Example 1: Show that the set of positive even integers
E is countable set.
Solution: Let f x = 2 x.( )
1 2 3 4 5 6

2 4 6 8 10 12
Then f is a bijection from N to E since f is both one-
to-one and onto. To show that it is one-to-one,
suppose that f(n) = f(m). Then 2n = 2m, and so n = m.
To see that it is onto, suppose that t is an even
positive integer. Then t = 2k for some positive
integer k and f(k) = t.
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Showing that a Set is Countable
• Example 2: Show that the set of integers Z is
countable.
Solution: Can list in a sequence:
0, 1, − 1, 2, − 2, 3, − 3 ,………..
Or can define a bijection from N to Z:
When n is even: f(n) = n/2
When n is odd: f(n) = −(n−1)/2

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 The Positive Rational Numbers
are Countable
• Definition: A rational number can be expressed as the
ratio of two integers p and q such that q ≠ 0.
• ¾ is a rational number
• √2 is not a rational number.
• Example 3: Show that the positive rational numbers are
countable.
Solution: The positive rational numbers are countable
since they can be arranged in a sequence:
r1 , r2 , r3 ,…
The next slide shows how this is done.

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 The Positive Rational Numbers
are Countable
Constructing the List
First row q = 1.
First list p/q with p + q = 2. Second row q = 2.
Next list p/q with p + q = 3 etc.

And so on.

1, ½, 2, 3, 1/3,1/4, 2/3, ….

Jump to long description

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Strings
• Example 4: Show that the set of finite strings S over a
finite alphabet A is countably infinite.
Assume an alphabetical ordering of symbols in A
Solution: Show that the strings can be listed in a
sequence. First list
1. All the strings of length 0 in alphabetical order.
2. Then all the strings of length 1 in lexicographic (as in
a dictionary) order.
3. Then all the strings of length 2 in lexicographic order.
4. And so on.
This implies a bijection from N to S and hence it is a
countably infinite set.

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 The Set of all Java Programs is
Countable
• Example 5: Show that the set of all Java programs is
countable.
• Solution: Let S be the set of strings constructed from the
characters which can appear in a Java program. Use the
ordering from the previous example. Take each string in
turn:
• Feed the string into a Java compiler. (A Java compiler will
determine if the input program is a syntactically correct
Java program.)
• If the compiler says YES, this is a syntactically correct
Java program, we add the program to the list.
• We move on to the next string.
• In this way we construct an implied bijection from N to the
set of Java programs. Hence, the set of Java programs is
countable.
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
The Real Numbers are
Uncountable
Georg Cantor
(1845-1918)

Example: Show that the set of real numbers is uncountable.

Solution: The method is called the Cantor diagonalization argument, and is a
proof by contradiction.
1. Suppose R is countable. Then the real numbers between 0 and 1 are also countable
(any subset of a countable set is countable - an exercise in the text).
2. The real numbers between 0 and 1 can be listed in order r1 , r2 , r3 ,… .
3. Let the decimal representation of this listing be r1 = 0.d11d12 d13d14 d15d16 ...
r2 = 0.d 21d 22 d 23d 24 d 25 d 26 ...
4. Form a new real number with the decimal .
expansion r = .r1r2 r3 r4 ... .
where ri = 3if dii  3 and ri = 4if dii = 3 .

5. r is not equal to any of the r1 , r2 , r3 ,... Because it differs from ri in its ith position
after the decimal point. Therefore there is a real number between 0 and 1 that is
not on the list since every real number has a unique decimal expansion. Hence,
all the real numbers between 0 and 1 cannot be listed, so the set of real numbers
between 0 and 1 is uncountable.
6. Since a set with an uncountable subset is uncountable (an exercise), the set of
real numbers is uncountable.
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Matrices
• Section 2.6

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 Section Summary
• Definition of a Matrix
• Matrix Arithmetic
• Transposes and Powers of Arithmetic
• Zero-One matrices

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 Matrices
• matrices are useful discrete structures that can be used
in many ways, e.g., they are used to
• describe certain types of functions known as linear
transformations
• example: express which vertices of a graph are
connected by edges (see Chapter 10)
• in later chapters, we will see matrices used to build
models of
• transportation systems
• communication networks
• here we cover the aspect of matrix arithmetic that will
be needed later

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 Matrix
• Definition: A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers.
• a matrix with m rows and n columns is called an m × n
matrix
• the plural of matrix is matrices
• a matrix with the same number of rows as columns is
called square
• two matrices are equal if they have the same number
of rows and the same number of columns
and the corresponding entries in every
position are equal. 1 1 
0 2 
• 3 × 2 matrix  
1 3 
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 Notation
Let m and n be positive integers and let  a11 a12 ... a1n 
a a22 ... a2 n 
 21
A= . . . . 
 
 . . . . 
 am1 am 2 ... amn 

The ith row of A is the 1 × n matrix [ai1, ai2,…,ain]. The jth

column of A is the m × 1 matrix:  a1 j 
a 
 2j
 . 
 
 . 
 amj 
 
The (i,j)th element or entry of A is the element aij. We
can use A = [aij ] to denote the matrix with its (i,j)th
element equal to aij.
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 Matrix Arithmetic: Addition
• Definition: Let A = [aij] and B = [bij] be m × n
matrices. The sum of A and B, denoted by A + B, is the
m × n matrix that has aij + bij as its (i,j)th element. In
other words, A + B = [aij + bij].
• Example:

1 0 −1  3 4 −1  4 4 −2 
 2 2 −3 +  1 −3 0  =  3 −1 −3
     
 3 4 0   −1 1 2   2 5 2 
Note that matrices of different sizes cannot be
added.

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 Matrix Multiplication
• Definition: Let A be an m × k matrix and B be a k × n
matrix. The product of A and B, denoted by AB, is the
m × n matrix that has its (i,j)th element equal to the
sum of the products of the corresponding elements
from the ith row of A and the jth column of B. In other
words, if AB = [cij] then cij = ai1b1j + ai2b2j + … + akjb2j.
• Example: 1 0 4  14 4 
2 1 1 2 4  
  1 1  =  8 9 
3 1 0    7 13
   3 0   
 0 2 2   8 2 
The product of two matrices is undefined when the
number of columns in the first matrix is not the same
as the number of rows in the second.
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 Illustration of Matrix
Multiplication
• product of A = [aij] and B = [bij]
 a11 a12 a1k   b11 a12 b1 j b1n 
a b b2 n 
 21 a22 a2 k   21 b22 b2 j
 . . .  B= . . . 
   
A=  . . .   . . . 
 ai1 ai 2 a1k  bk1 bk 2 bkj bkn 
  
 . . . 
 . . .   c11 c12 c1n 
  c
 am1 am 2 amk   21 b22 c2 n 
 . . . 
AB =  
 . . cij . 
cij = ai1b1 j + ai 2b2 j + ... + aik bkj  . . . 
 
cm1 cm 2 cmn 
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 Matrix Multiplication is not
Commutative
Example: Let

1 1  2 1
A=  B= 
 2 1 1 1
Does AB = BA?
Solution:

 23 2  4 3
AB =   BA =  
5 3  3 2 
AB ≠ BA
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 Identity Matrix and Powers of
Matrices
Definition: The identity matrix of order n is the m × n
matrix In = [ij], where ij = 1 if i = j and ij = 0 if i≠j.

1 0 0
0 1 0 
  AIn = ImA = A
. . .
In =  
. . . . when A is an m × n matrix
 
. . .
 
0 0 1
Powers of square matrices can be defined. When A is an
n × n matrix, we have:
A0 = In A r = AAA A
r times
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 Transposes of Matrices
• Definition: Let A = [aij] be an m × n matrix. The
transpose of A, denoted by AT,is the n × m matrix
obtained by interchanging the rows and columns of A.
If AT = [bij], then bij = aji for i =1,2,…,n and j = 1,2, ...,m.

1 4 
1 2 3  
The transpose of the matrix   is the matrix  2 5 
 4 5 6   3 6 

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 Transposes of Matrices
• Definition: A square matrix A is called symmetric if
A = AT. Thus A = [aij] is symmetric if aij = aji for i and
j with 1 ≤ i ≤ n and 1 ≤ j ≤ n.

1 1 0 
 
The matrix 1 0 1  is square. (and symmetric)
0 1 0 
• Symmetric matrices do not change when their rows
and columns are interchanged.

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 Zero-One Matrices
• Definition: A matrix all of whose entries are either 0 or
1 is called a zero-one matrix. (These will be used in
Chapters 9 and 10.)
• Algorithms operating on discrete structures
represented by zero-one matrices are based on Boolean
arithmetic defined by the following Boolean operations:

1 if b1 = b2 = 1 1 if b1 = 1 or b2 = 1
b1  b2 =  b1  b2 = 
0 otherwise 0 otherwise

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 Zero-One Matrices
• Definition: Let A = [aij] and B = [bij] be an m  n zero-one
matrices.
• The join of A and B is the zero-one matrix with (i,j)th
entry aij ∨ bij. The join of A and B is denoted by A ∨ B.
• The meet of A and B is the zero-one matrix with
(i,j)th entry aij ∧ bij. The meet of A and B is denoted
by A ∧ B.

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 Joins and Meets of Zero-One
Matrices
Example: Find the join and meet of the zero-one
matrices

1 0 1  0 1 0 
A=  , B=  .
0 1 0  1 1 0 
Solution: The join of A and B is
1  0 0  1 1  0  1 1 1 
AB=  =
0  1 1  1 
0  0  1 1 0 
The meet of A and B is

1  0 0  1 1  0  0 0 0 
AB=   =  .
0  1 1  1 0  0  0 1 0 
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Boolean Product of Zero-One
Matrices
• Definition: Let A = [aij] be an m × k zero-one matrix
and B = [bij] be a k × n zero-one matrix. The Boolean
product of A and B, denoted by A ⊙ B, is the m × n
zero-one matrix with(i,j)th entry
cij = (ai1 ∧ b1j)∨ (ai2 ∧ b2j) ∨ … ∨ (aik ∧ bkj).

• Example: Find the Boolean product of A and B, where

1 0 
1 1 0 
A = 0 1  , B=  .
1 0  0 1 1 

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 Boolean Product of Zero-One
Matrices
• Solution: The Boolean product A ⊙ B is given by

 (1  1)  (0  0) (1  1)  ( 0  1) (1  0 )  ( 0  1) 

A ⊙ B = ( 0  1)  (1  0 ) ( 0  1)  (1  1) ( 0  0 )  (1  1) 
 (1  1)  (0  0) (1  1)  ( 0  1) (1  0 )  ( 0  1) 
1  0 1  0 0  0
= 0  0 0  1 0  1 
1  0 1  0 0  0 

1 1 0 
= 0 1 1  .
1 1 0 

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 Boolean Powers of Zero-One
Matrices
• Definition: Let A be a square zero-one matrix and let r
be a positive integer. The rth Boolean power of A is the
Boolean product of r factors of A, denoted by A[r] .
Hence,
r 
A = A ⊙ A⊙ ⊙ A.
r times

• We define A[0] to be In.

• The Boolean product is well defined because the Boolean
product of matrices is associative.

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 Boolean Powers of Zero-One
Matrices
• Example: Let 0 0 1 
A = 1 0 0  .
1 1 0 

• Find An for all positive integers n.

1 1 0  1 0 0 
A = A ⊙ A = 0 0 1  A = 1 1 0 
2
A  = A
2
• Solution:
3
⊙

1 0 1  1 1 1 

1 1 1
A = A  ⊙ A = 1 0 1
4 3

1 1 1
1 1 1
A = 1 1 1
5
A  = A 5 for all positive integers n with n  5
n

1 1 1
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 Appendix of Image
Long Descriptions

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 Functions 3 – Appendix

• The circle representing set A has element A inside.

The circle representing set B has element B equals F
left parenthesis A right parenthesis. Also, there are
two arrows labeled F. From circle A to circle B, and
from element A to B.

Jump to the image

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 Inverse Functions 1 – Appendix

• There are two circles representing sets A and B.

Circle A has element A equal to F power minus one left
parenthesis B right parenthesis. Circle B has element
B equal to F left parenthesis A right parenthesis. Also,
there are 4 arrows: an arrow from element A to
element B labeled F left parenthesis A right
parenthesis, an arrow from element B to element A
labeled F power minus one left parenthesis B right
parenthesis, an arrow from circle A to circle B labeled
F. And arrow from circle B to circle A labeled F power
minus one.

Jump to the image

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Composition 1 – Appendix

• There are three circles, representing sets A, B, and C. Circle A

has element A. Circle B has element G left parenthesis A right
parenthesis. Circle C has element F left parenthesis G left
parenthesis A two right parentheses. Also, there are 6 arrows.
From circle A to circle B labeled G. From circle B to circle C
labeled F. From circle A to circle C labeled F circle G. From
element A to element G left parenthesis A right parenthesis
labeled G left parenthesis A right parenthesis. From element G
left parenthesis A right parenthesis to element F left
parenthesis G left parenthesis A 2 right parentheses labeled F
left parenthesis G left parenthesis A 2 right parentheses. From
element A to element F left parenthesis G left parenthesis A 2
right parentheses labeled left parenthesis F circle G right
parenthesis left parenthesis A right parenthesis.

Jump to the image

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 Graphs of Functions – Appendix

• There are eight rows by eight columns of plotted

points. There is a line passing through the points in the
third column and a line passing through the points in
the sixth row. The point in the first row fifth column,
the point in the third row fourth column, and the point
in the fifth row third column are shaded.

Jump to the image

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 Floor and Ceiling Functions – Appendix

• The X and Y axes range from -3 to 3, in increments of

1. There are horizontal segments of unit length. In the
floor graph, each segment has a shaded point on its
left end and a blank point on its right end. The
segments are: from x = −3 to −2 and y = −3, from x =
−2 to −1 and y = −2, from x = −1 to 0 and y = −1, from x
= 0 to 1 and y = 0, from x = 1 to 2 and y = 1, from x = 2
to 3 and y = 2. In the ceiling graph, each segment has a
blank point on its left end and a shaded point on its
right end. The segments are: from x = −3 to −2 and y =
−2, from x = −2 to −1 and y = −1, from x = −1 to 0 and y
= 0, from x = 0 to 1 and y = 1, from x = 1 to 2 and y = 2,
from x = 2 to 3 and y = 3.
Jump to the image
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 The Positive Rational Numbers are
Countable – Appendix
• There are some rows and columns of elements. Each
element is a fraction, where the numerator is a
number of the row and the denominator is a number of
the column. The elements are connected by arrows
starting from the top left one. The path is as follows.
One first circled, one half circled, two firsts circled.
Three firsts circled, two halves not circled, one third
circled. One fourth circled, two thirds circled, three
halves circled. Four firsts circled, five firsts circled,
four halves not circled. Three thirds not circled, two
fourths not circled, one fifth circled, etc.

Jump to the image

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