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High-Intensity Functional Training Induces Superior Training Adaptations

Compared With Traditional Military Physical Training

Article in The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research · June 2023

DOI: 10.1519/JSC.0000000000004559

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 Original Research

High-Intensity Functional Training Induces Superior

Training Adaptations Compared With Traditional
Military Physical Training
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Joonas Helén,1 Heikki Kyröläinen,1,2 Tommi Ojanen,3 Kai Pihlainen,4 Matti Santtila,1 Risto Heikkinen,5 and
CX1AWnYQp/IlQrHD3i3D0OdRyi7TvSFl4Cf3VC4/OAVpDDa8KKGKV0Ymy+78= on 07/02/2023

Jani P. Vaara1
1
Department of Leadership and Military Pedagogy, National Defence University, Helsinki, Finland; 2Faculty of Sport and Health
Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylän yliopisto, Finland; 3Human Performance Division, Finnish Defence Research Agency,
Järvenpää, Finland; 4Training Division, Defence Command, Finnish Defence Forces, Helsinki, Finland; and 5Statistical Analysis
Services, Analyysitoimisto Statisti Oy, Jyväskylä, Finland

Abstract
Helén, J, Kyröläinen, H, Ojanen, T, Pihlainen, K, Santtila, M, Heikkinen, R, and Vaara, JP. High-intensity functional training induces
superior training adaptations compared with traditional military physical training. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000–000, 2023—This
study examined the effectiveness of concurrent strength and endurance training with an emphasis on high-intensity functional
training (HIFT) during military service. Voluntary male conscripts (aged 18–28 years) were placed in either an experimental (EXP: n 5
50–66) or a control (CON: n 5 50–67) group. The training for the EXP group included HIFT using body mass, sandbags, and
kettlebells. The CON group trained according to the current practice. Physical performance and body composition were assessed
at baseline (PRE), at week 10 (MID), and after (POST) the 19-week training period. Significance was set at p , 0.05. The total
distance covered in a 12-minute running test increased in both groups, but the change in EXP was superior to the change in CON
(11.6%, ES: 0.79 vs. 5.7%, ES: 0.33; p 5 0.027). Maximal strength and power characteristics increased in EXP (3.1–5.0%),
whereas no improvements were observed in CON. Conscripts with the highest initial fitness showed no improvements in physical
performance in either group. Body mass and waist circumference decreased in EXP, whereas CON showed an increase in muscle
mass. These findings suggest that HIFT is an effective and time-efficient approach to improve soldiers’ aerobic fitness during military
service. For the optimal development of strength, the training equipment used may not have provided sufficient and progressive
loading to yield considerable strength adaptations. More focus should be placed on sufficient intensity and volume in both strength
and endurance training, especially for the most fit soldiers.
Key Words: exercise, fitness, strength, endurance, soldiers

Introduction adaptations during military training (21). This interference effect

during concurrent strength and endurance training was first de-
The modern warfighter is expected to have a wide range of
scribed by Hickson (14), but controversial findings have been
physical capabilities because the tasks faced during combat re-
reported in more recent studies (29,34). Although the universal
quire high levels of muscular strength and power, anaerobic
concept of interference effect is equivocal, there is little doubt that
performance, and aerobic fitness (9,20). However, the simulta-
the various stressors in the military environment—such as ex-
neous development of these characteristics in a demanding mili-
cessive low-intensity physical activity, negative energy balance,
tary environment is a major challenge, especially in the most fit
and sleep deprivation—have detrimental effects on the optimal
individuals (21). Improvements in strength and aerobic fitness are
development of physical performance (11,17,27).
typically observed in soldiers with the lowest initial fitness (5,30).
The training load during military service can reach levels
There are continuous efforts toward the development of optimal
comparable to professional athlete training loads (17). Along
training strategies for soldiers.
with reducing total physical activity volume, adding variation to
Military physical training typically has a bias toward aerobic
the training intensity is recommended because low-intensity to
training because of its easy implementation and minimal equip-
moderate-intensity activity alone does not seem to provide a
ment. It has been identified that aerobic fitness is an essential
sufficient stimulus to optimize aerobic fitness development during
characteristic of a soldier’s physical performance, but high vol-
military training (8). Concurrent strength and endurance training
umes of endurance training may compromise strength
including low-volume high-intensity training seems to be a viable
Address correspondence to Joonas Helén, [Link]@[Link]. training method for soldiers and may be effective to improve both
Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 00(00)/1–7 aerobic and neuromuscular performance (6,10,21,36).
Copyright ª 2023 The Author(s). Published by Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. on behalf Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate the ef-
of the National Strength and Conditioning Association.. This is an open access fects of concurrent strength and endurance training with an em-
article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Non phasis on high-intensity functional training (HIFT) on physical
Commercial-No Derivatives License 4.0 (CCBY-NC-ND), where it is permissible to
performance and body composition during military training. A
download and share the work provided it is properly cited. The work cannot be
changed in any way or used commercially without permission from the journal. focus was placed on easy implementation of the training and

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 Effects of High-Intensity Functional Training (2023) 00:00

minimal usage of equipment and facilities. We hypothesized that subjects were allowed to practice 2–3 throws, followed by 3
the experimental training would induce greater improvements in measured maximal attempts with the best result selected for
both aerobic and neuromuscular performance when compared analysis. Reliability of 1.5- and 3.0-kg SMBT has been reported to
with the current practice. be high (ICC 5 0.994 and 0.989, respectively) (13).
Peak power of the lower extremities was assessed using a
standing long jump (SLJ), which was performed using a coun-
Methods termovement and arm swing. The best result of 3 attempts was
Experimental Approach to the Problem used for analysis. SLJ has shown high reliability (ICC 5 0.95)
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(23). Muscle endurance of the abdominal and hip-flexor muscles,

Conscripts who had entered for 5.5-month military service formed and upper body was assessed with 1-minute repeated sit-ups and
the sample population for this study. Two companies were selected push-ups, respectively. The total number of repetitions was
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to experimental (EXP) and control (CON) groups. Measurements recorded in both assessments. High reliability (ICC . 0.90) for
of physical performance and body composition were conducted repeated sit-ups and push-ups has been reported (4).
over a 5-day period 1 week before the start of the 19-week training Aerobic fitness was assessed using the 12-minute running test
intervention (PRE), repeated at training week 10 (MID), and again (7), which was performed on an indoor grass turf track. The result
1 week after training (POST) using identical protocols. All subjects was the total distance covered with the accuracy of 5 m.
were housed, fed, and trained at a military base. Body composition characteristics (body mass, muscle mass,
body fat mass, and body fat %) were measured in the morning
after an overnight fast using the segmental multifrequency bio-
Subjects
impedance analysis (InBody 720/770; Biospace Co. Ltd., Seoul,
A total of 243 male conscripts volunteered to participate in this South Korea) in accordance with the manufacturer’s guidelines
study. One hundred seventeen subjects were lost to follow-up (2). A tape measure was used to measure waist circumference
after PRE or MID measurements due to unit transfer or cessation (WC). Height was measured at baseline with a wall-mounted
of the military service. Six subjects were lost (EXP 2; CON 4) due stadiometer.
to lack of motivation to participate. The final study sample (n 5
133) included subjects who took part in at least 2 measurement Exercise Training Programs. Training in the EXP group included
sessions (EXP: n 5 66, age 19 6 1 year [range 18–24 years], body concurrent strength and endurance training, with an emphasis on
mass 73.7 6 12.7 kg, height 178 6 7 cm; CON: n 5 67, age 19 6 HIFT. The training was conducted in a way that allowed soldiers to
1 year [range 18–25 years], body mass 73.3 6 11.6 kg, height 179 individually adjust exercise intensity to provide a proper training
6 6 cm). No women participated because the units selected for the stimulus, regardless of the initial fitness level. Along with body
study had only men. The subjects provided a written informed mass exercises, the additional training equipment included sand-
consent form after they were informed about the design of the bags (Brute Force Training LLC, Arvada, CO) and kettlebells from
study and the benefits and possible risks associated with it. The 16 to 32 kg. The weight of the sandbags was adjustable between
study was conducted according to the Declaration of Helsinki and approximately 10 and 60 kg. Each EXP training session (60 mi-
was approved by the Ethical Committee of the Central Finland nutes) commenced with a standardized warm-up, which included a
Health Care District and the Finnish Defence Forces (AP10027). short low-intensity aerobic exercise, dynamic stretching, and core
All subjects were screened and had no medical condition that stability exercises. Next, 1 or 2 strength exercises (Table 1) were
would prevent participation in the study. performed with a varied number of sets (3–8), repetitions (5–15),
and rest period durations (1–4 minutes) over the training sessions.
The subjects were instructed to use loading that resulted in voli-
Procedures
tional failure in each set. Thereafter, a HIFT workout was per-
The subjects were familiarized with the testing procedures, and a formed with varied intensity, duration (5–30 minutes), and exercise
standardized warm-up was performed before each assessment. selection in every session. Most of the workouts included circuit
Maximal voluntary isometric contraction of the upper (MVI- training, which involves different exercises performed with either a
Cupper) and lower (MVIClower) body was measured in a seated prescribed number of sets and repetitions as fast as possible or as
position using an electromechanical leg and bench press dyna- many rounds as possible in a given time frame. For example, a
mometer manufactured by the University of Jyväskylä, Finland circuit training with 10 burpees, 15 kettlebell swings, and 20 lunges
(15). In the bench press measurement, the elbow angle was 90° was performed for as many rounds as possible in 20 minutes. To
and the bar was adjusted to shoulder height. In the leg press promote progression, the training load was gradually increased
measurement, the knee angle was adjusted to 107°. The subjects throughout the training period by increasing the volume load (sets
were given 2 attempts in both tests to produce maximal force (N), 3 repetitions 3 load) in strength exercises and encouraging the
separated by at least 30-second rest. The best results were selected subjects to increase intensity in HIFT workouts at their discretion.
for analysis. The reliability has been reported to be high in All training sessions were supervised by drill instructors who were
maximal isometric strength tests (ICC . 0.91) (25). familiarized with the training before the start of the experiment.
A seated medicine ball throw (SMBT) was used to measure Subjects in the CON group trained in accordance with the
upper-body power. The subjects were asked to sit on the floor, current physical training guidelines of the Finnish Defense Forces.
legs extended and in contact with each other and back firmly Training consisted of exercises that are traditionally used in a
against the wall. A 7.5-cm-thick yoga block was placed between military context, such as running, ball games, and calisthenics
the wall and the lower back for support. The subjects were (Table 2). The total volume of training during the intervention
instructed to throw a 2-kg medicine ball off the chest with both was 46 and 42 hours for EXP and CON, respectively. The pro-
hands while keeping their back in contact with the wall. The portion of HIFT in EXP was 30 hours. As some of the training
distance was measured from the wall to the middle of the landing objectives were necessary to perform, 16 hours of training in EXP
point using a measurement tape placed securely on the floor. The was similar to CON (Table 2). In addition to the 5 hours of actual

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Table 1 assessment to study the training responses in individuals with dif-

Exercises used in the experimental training program.* ferent baseline fitness levels. Statistical analysis was conducted with
R (3.6.3). All data are presented as mean with SD where appro-
Squat (back/front) BM/KB/SB
Lunge BM/KB/SB priate. The level of significance was set at p , 0.05.
Deadlift SB/KB
Bent over row (U/B) SB/KB
Shoulder press (U/B) SB/KB
Floor press SB/KB
Results
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Kettlebell swing KB After the 19-week training period, improvements in running

Standing long jump BM performance and maximal strength and power characteristics
Push-up BM were observed in EXP (Table 3). A significant group 3 time in-
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Burpee BM
teraction occurred for 12-minute run (p 5 0.027), MVICupper (p
Running BM
5 0.017), MVIClower (p 5 0.003), and SMBT (p , 0.001). The
Ground to shoulder SB
Lateral hop over sandbag SB 12-minute run performance improved in EXP by 11.6% (238 6
Bear crawl drag SB 310 m, p , 0.001) and by 5.7% (100 6 276 m, p 5 0.008) in
Plank drag SB CON. The observed improvement occurred at the lowest baseline
Farmers carry (U) SB/KB tertile (T1) in both groups (p , 0.001) and the middle tertile (T2)
Burden carry SB in EXP (p , 0.001), whereas subjects in the highest baseline tertile
Plank BM (T3) showed no change in either group (Figure 1).
Side plank BM MVICupper improved by 3.8% (24 6 70 N, p 5 0.001) and
Mountain climber BM MVIClower by 5.0% (116 6 408 N, p 5 0.02) in EXP, whereas
Sit-up BM
CON showed no change. SMBT improved by 3.1% (15 6 38 cm,
Pike-up BM
p 5 0.003) in EXP, whereas a decrease of 2.2% (14 6 42 cm, p 5
Russian twist KB
0.013) was observed in CON (Table 3). However, improvements
*BM 5 body mass, KB 5 kettlebell, SB 5 sandbag, U 5 unilateral, B 5 bilateral. in muscular fitness in EXP occurred only in T1 and T2 for
MVICupper (p , 0.001 for all). No changes were observed in any
baseline tertiles in CON. No significant group 3 time interaction
running training in EXP, the HIFT workouts also included some was observed in sit-ups and push-ups. SLJ decreased by 2.3% (5
running, which was performed in short sprints (200–400 m) as 6 12 cm, p 5 0.008) in EXP between PRE and MID measure-
part of the circuit training. However, the total volume of running ments, but returned to the baseline level in POST measurements.
in HIFT workouts during the intervention was low (,5,000 m). Among body composition variables (Table 4), a significant
The average frequency of training was twice a week for both group 3 time interaction occurred for body mass (p 5 0.001),
groups. Of the total 33 and 35 training sessions in EXP and CON, muscle mass (p , 0.001), and WC (p 5 0.002). A decrease in body
mean (6SD) participation among subjects was 88 6 9% and 91 mass (1.6 6 0.1 kg, p 5 0.001) and WC (1 6 0 cm, p 5 0.011) was
6 8%, respectively. Because the amount of military field exercises observed in EXP but not in CON, whereas CON showed an in-
is typically higher in the latter part of the Finnish military service, crease in muscle mass (0.7 6 0.2 kg, p , 0.001). WC decreased in
the training volume for EXP and CON was 27 and 26 hours CON between PRE and MID measurements (2 6 0 cm, p , 0.001)
between PRE and MID measurements, and 19 and 16 hours be- but returned to the baseline level in POST measurement. Although
tween MID and POST measurements, respectively. Along with no significant group 3 time interaction was observed in body fat
physical training, both groups conducted normal military train- mass, it decreased in EXP (1.1 6 0.2 kg, p 5 0.004) between PRE
ing with similar requirements, such as combat training, material and POST measurements. At baseline tertiles, body mass, body fat
handling, shooting, marching, and theoretical education. mass, and body fat % increased in T1 and decreased in T3 in both
groups (p , 0.01 for all). An interaction in body mass between EXP
and CON occurred in T1 (p , 0.001) as the increase in CON was
Statistical Analyses
higher and in T2 (p , 0.001) as body mass decreased in EXP, with
Sample size estimation was based on improvements in the 12- no change observed in CON.
minute run previously reported by Pihlainen et al. (30). As we The decreases in body mass and body fat were not associated with
assumed, for an increase of 5% in CON and 10% in EXP, the the improved running performance in EXP, but a weak positive
required sample size was n 5 63 to detect a significant difference
(alpha 5 0.05, 80% power). A linear mixed-effects model was used
to estimate changes within and between groups over the study Table 2
period. Interactions between groups and time were tested with the Components and volume (hours) of the experimental (EXP) and
F-test (Satterthwaite’s method). Tukey’s post hoc test was applied control (CON) training programs.
for within-group pairwise comparisons between time points. The EXP CON
effect sizes (ESs) were calculated as the mean difference between HIFT 30 0
PRE-measurement and POST-measurement values divided by the Running 5 10
standard deviation (SD) of the respective PRE-measurement value. Ball games 0 13
ES values were considered as 0.2 5 small, 0.5 5 medium, and 0.8 Calisthenics 3 9
5 large effect. Pearson’s correlation coefficients were calculated Swimming 2 2
between the changes in measured variables. The final sample size, Orienteering 3 3
Self-defense/hand-to-hand combat 2 2
depending on the outcome variable in these analyses, was 50–66
Resistance training (gym) 1 3
for EXP and 50–67 for CON. In addition, subjects were catego-
Total (hours) 46 42
rized into tertiles based on the initial (PRE) result for each

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Table 3
Mean (6SD) changes in physical fitness in the experimental (EXP) and control (CON) training groups.*
PRE MID POST Group 3 time interaction ES 6 SD
MVICupper (N)
EXP 816 6 190 852 6 179† 853 6 172‡ p 5 0.017 0.14 6 0.41
CON 792 6 144 791 6 138 781 6 142 20.04 6 0.32
MVIClower (N)
EXP 2,922 6 638 3,025 6 631 3,051 6 660‡ p 5 0.003 0.18 6 0.64
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CON 3,175 6 623 3,055 6 609 3,116 6 661 20.11 6 0.65

SMBT (cm)
EXP 538 6 67 558 6 69† 554 6 65‡ p , 0.001 0.23 6 0.57
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CON 553 6 65 539 6 62† 539 6 66‡ 20.21 6 0.63

SLJ (cm)
EXP 224 6 26 219 6 28† 220 6 26 p 5 0.050 20.09 6 0.46
CON 216 6 27 218 6 29 213 6 25 20.05 6 0.48
Sit-ups (reps·min21)
EXP 36 6 9 37 6 8 36 6 10 p 5 0.949 20.02 6 0.92
CON 33 6 9 34 6 10 32 6 10 20.03 6 0.60
Push-ups (reps·min21)
EXP 27 6 13 29 6 13 27 6 12 p 5 0.413 0.05 6 0.64
CON 24 6 10 26 6 10 23 6 11 20.08 6 0.66
12-min run (m)
EXP 2,240 6 287 2,426 6 285† 2,471 6 334‡ p 5 0.027 0.79 6 1.03
CON 2,210 6 316 2,299 6 312† 2,315 6 286‡ 0.33 6 0.92
*ES 5 effect size, MVICupper 5 maximal voluntary isometric contraction of the upper extremities, MVIClower 5 maximal voluntary isometric contraction of the lower extremities, SD 5 standard deviation, SLJ 5
standing long jump, SMBT 5 seated medicine ball throw.
†Significant PRE–POST change (p , 0.05).
‡Significant PRE–MID change (p , 0.05).

correlation was observed between the change in 12-minute run and Discussion
MVIClower (r 5 0.28, p 5 0.045) and SLJ (r 5 0.38, p 5 0.004). By
An experimental 19-week concurrent strength and endurance
contrast, weak to moderate inverse correlations were observed be- training program with a special emphasis on HIFT elicited greater
tween 12-minute run and body mass (r 5 20.33, p 5 0.028), body improvements in aerobic fitness and muscle strength character-
fat mass (r 5 20.45, p 5 0.002), and body fat % (r 5 20.44, p 5 istics of the conscripts than traditional military physical training.
0.003) in CON, but no associations were observed with lower-body Although the effect sizes were small in most of the observed
strength variables. changes, a more notable result was present in the 12-minute run.

Figure 1. Mean (6SD) changes between PRE and POST measurements in the 12-minute run
among baseline fitness tertiles (EXP: T1 , 2,165 m, T2 2,165–2,400 m, T3 . 2,400 m; CON: T1
, 2,155 m, T2 2,155–2,410 m, T3 . 2,410 m). *p , 0.05, **p , 0.01, ***p , 0.001.

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Table 4
Mean (6SD) changes in body composition in the experimental (EXP) and control (CON) training groups.*
PRE MID POST Group 3 time interaction ES 6 SD
Body mass (kg)
EXP 73.7 6 12.7 73.1 6 12.2 72.3 6 10.7† p 5 0.001 20.13 6 0.37
CON 73.3 6 11.6 73.4 6 10.2 74.1 6 9.4 0.06 6 0.33
Muscle mass (kg)
EXP 34.9 6 4.9 34.9 6 5.2 34.7 6 4.6 p , 0.001 20.06 6 0.26
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CON 34.5 6 4.0 34.7 6 3.8‡ 35.2 6 3.9† 0.15 6 0.35

Body fat mass (kg)
EXP 12.3 6 7.2 11.8 6 5.9 11.3 6 5.1† p 5 0.236 20.15 6 0.50
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CON 12.2 6 7.2 12.0 6 6.4 12.1 6 5.6 20.05 6 0.42

Body fat %
EXP 15.8 6 7.2 15.4 6 5.7 15.2 6 5.3 p 5 0.344 20.10 6 0.51
CON 15.8 6 7.1 15.7 6 6.3 15.8 6 5.6 20.02 6 0.45
WC (cm)
EXP 81 6 8 80 6 8 80 6 6† p 5 0.002 20.15 6 0.48
CON 83 6 9 81 6 8‡ 83 6 8§ 0.05 6 0.47
*ES 5 effect size, SD 5 standard deviation, WC 5 waist circumference.
†Significant PRE–POST change (p , 0.05).
‡Significant PRE–MID change (p , 0.05).
§Significant MID–POST change (p , 0.05).

Both groups improved their physical performance, but the change ($80% of 1RM) compared with moderate-load or low-load
in EXP was superior compared with CON. Muscle mass in- training. Furthermore, it is likely that the training volume in the
creased in CON, whereas body mass decreased in EXP compared present study was too low for the optimal development of
with CON. strength. For training frequency, it seems that high (3–4 times/
The observed improvement of 6% in the 12-minute run in week) vs. low (1–2 times/week) training frequency results in
CON is in line with Pihlainen et al. (30), who reported a similar similar strength gains when the volume is equated, especially in
5% change in conscripts during 6–12 months of military service previously untrained individuals (12). For example, Häkkinen
in the Finnish Defence Forces. The significantly larger improve- et al. (16) reported large (.20%) increases in 1RM strength of leg
ment (12%) in EXP may be due to higher training adaptations, extensors during a 21-week training period in untrained subjects,
such as improved oxygen utilization and mitochondrial bio- with only 2 weekly training sessions. However, gains of this
genesis induced by high-intensity training (10). This is also sup- magnitude required sufficient loading and progression through-
ported by the observation that the decreases in body mass and out the training. Burley et al. (6) reported a notable ;26% in-
body fat were not associated with the improved running perfor- crease in 1RM squat after 12 weeks of low-volume high-intensity
mance (24). In addition, the changes in strength characteristics training in military recruits. In initially fit individuals, an im-
could have affected the 12-minute run. It has been demonstrated provement of this magnitude was achieved with 17 strength
that strength training can enhance endurance performance training sessions with sufficient training intensity and progression
through several mechanisms, including improved running econ- while reducing the total amount of endurance-type physical ac-
omy (1,28,32). The improvements in MVIClower and SLJ were tivity. In addition, recruits concurrently improved aerobic fitness
associated with the improvement in the 12-minute run, suggesting with only 8 HIIT (running) and 2 load carriage training sessions.
that training-induced neuromuscular adaptations may have As military units are more likely to use low (1–2 times/week)
contributed to running performance. It is also noteworthy that the strength training frequency because of practical reasons, the im-
volume of running training in EXP was ;50% lower than in portance of maintaining a high training intensity needs to be
CON. Thus, the primary explanation for the improvement is emphasized.
most likely due to the inclusion of high-intensity endurance The greatest improvements in fitness during military training
training in EXP, which is considered beneficial for the de- are usually observed in soldiers with the lowest initial fitness
velopment of aerobic fitness in soldiers (21,33). levels, whereas soldiers with the highest fitness tend to decrease
Although EXP improved strength characteristics (MVICupper, performance (5,30). Therefore, the experimental training in the
MVIClower, and SMBT) compared with CON, the effect sizes for present study was designed to provide a proper training stimulus
these changes were small. An increase in muscle mass was only for every soldier regardless of their fitness. For example, in
observed in CON, suggesting that the strength gains in EXP were workouts intended to complete a prescribed amount of work as
largely due to neural adaptations. Indeed, the early response to fast as possible, or complete as many rounds as possible in a given
resistance training in untrained individuals is characterized by time frame, each individual was able to adjust exercise intensity
neural adaptations including motor learning and coordination, by modifying the pace, rest periods, or weights used. The subjects
which can also be achieved using relatively light loads (19). Al- were instructed to increase intensity throughout the training in-
though the equipment used in experimental training in the present tervention at their discretion. However, the compliance with these
study was able to provide sufficient load to produce modest in- instructions remains unclear because no data were collected on
creases in strength, it is obvious that more progressive loading is the actual training intensity (e.g., weights used, heart rate, or
needed with further training to develop maximal strength. A re- rating of perceived exertion). Nevertheless, the absence of im-
cent systematic review by Lopez et al. (22) showed that gains in provement in aerobic fitness in T3 could more likely be attributed
maximal strength are significantly greater with high-load training to the relatively low total training volume. In some exercises

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 Effects of High-Intensity Functional Training (2023) 00:00

targeted to improve maximal strength (e.g., back/front squat for comparable to physical education teachers, but because of the
,6 RM), the optimal training stimulus and progression for the familiarization, the training sessions in EXP could have been
strongest individuals were obviously limited by the maximum conducted more effectively than in CON. Another limitation in
load that the equipment could provide. Although it was hypoth- this study is the relatively modest sample size. It is possible that we
esized that the experimental training would elicit greater adap- were not able to detect a true effect in some of the measured
tations in performance in the most fit individuals compared with variables because the sample size estimation was based on the
CON (21), significant improvements were not observed in any of primary variable under interest (12-minute run). Thus, the study
the measured physical performance variables in T3 in either design can be deemed underpowered to detect differences in
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group. These present findings further highlight the importance of variables where high variance was observed (e.g., sit-ups and
the development of individualized training strategies that can push-ups).
provide sufficient training intensity, volume, and progression for
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soldiers with the highest initial fitness.

The volume of physical training was unevenly distributed Practical Applications
during the intervention period because of the high amount of
military field training exercises in the latter half of the study. This Concurrent strength and endurance training, with an em-
could partially explain why the observed improvements in per- phasis on HIFT, elicits superior adaptations in aerobic fitness
formance in EXP occurred mostly between PRE and MID mea- when compared with traditional military physical training.
surements and remained mostly unaltered between MID and Although the training equipment (sandbags and kettlebells)
POST measurements. It remains unclear whether further im- used in the present study proved to be a viable option for
provements would have occurred between MID and POST military physical training, their applicability to strength
measurements if the training volume had been similar to the pe- training is limited. For the optimal development of strength
riod between PRE and MID measurements. Nevertheless, with during military service, it is necessary to use equipment that
limited time committed to physical training, leaders should be can provide progressive loading. Furthermore, as low-volume
advised to include, at least, some amount of exercise to maintain HIFT seems to be a time-efficient method for the development
current levels of fitness. Spiering et al. (35) concluded that if ex- of aerobic fitness in soldiers, it is likely beneficial to increase
ercise intensity is maintained or even increased, very little amount the proportion of time dedicated to strength training. Future
of exercise is needed to maintain fitness. Another strategy worth studies aimed at developing optimal training programs for
considering is to distribute the weekly training volume into sev- soldiers should focus on providing sufficient training intensity
eral short sessions (e.g., 15 minutes) because it seems to result in and volume in both strength and endurance training, espe-
similar adaptations as longer, less frequent sessions at the same cially for the most fit individuals.
total training volume (18).
The baseline body mass, body fat mass, and body fat % were
inversely associated with their changes in both groups, which is in Acknowledgments
line with previous findings (30). However, in T1, the increase in The authors thank the conscripts for participating in this study.
body mass was lower in EXP compared with CON, whereas in This study was funded by the Finnish Defence Forces Defense
T2, a decrease was observed only in EXP. Although there was no Command and the National Defense Foundation. The authors
group 3 time interaction for body fat mass or body fat %, within- have no conflicts of interest to disclose. The results of the present
group comparisons revealed a decrease in body fat mass in EXP. study do not constitute endorsement by the NSCA.
These findings, along with the observed decrease in body mass
and unaltered muscle mass in EXP, may reflect a negative energy
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