5.

Torsion
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
• Discuss effects of applying
torsional loading to a long straight
member
• Determine stress distribution within
the member under torsional load
• Determine angle of twist when material behaves in
a linear-elastic and inelastic manner
• Discuss statically indeterminate analysis of shafts
and tubes
• Discuss stress distributions and residual stress
caused by torsional loadings
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5. Torsion
CHAPTER OUTLINE
1. Torsional Deformation of a Circular Shaft
2. The Torsion Formula
3. Power Transmission
4. Angle of Twist
5. Statically Indeterminate Torque-Loaded
Members
6. *Solid Noncircular Shafts
7. *Thin-Walled Tubes Having Closed Cross
Sections
8. Stress Concentration
9. *Inelastic Torsion
10. *Residual Stress
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5. Torsion
5.1 TORSIONAL DEFORMATION OF A CIRCULAR SHAFT

• Torsion is a moment that twists/deforms a

member about its longitudinal axis
• By observation, if angle of rotation is small, length
of shaft and its radius remain unchanged

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5.1 TORSIONAL DEFORMATION OF A CIRCULAR SHAFT

• By definition, shear strain is  = (/2)  lim ’

CA along CA
BA along BA

Let x  dx and   = d
BD =  d = dx 
d
 =
dx

• Since d / dx =  / = max /c


Equation 5-2
 = (c ) max

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5.2 THE TORSION FORMULA
• For solid shaft, shear stress varies from zero at
shaft’s longitudinal axis to maximum value at its
outer surface.
• Due to proportionality of triangles, or using Hooke’s
law and Eqn 5-2,

 = (c ) max
...

 max
Τ=
c ∫A 2 dA

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5.2 THE TORSION FORMULA
• The integral in the equation can be represented as
the polar moment of inertia J, of shaft’s x-sectional
area computed about its longitudinal axis
Tc
 max =
J
 max = max. shear stress in shaft, at the outer surface
T = resultant internal torque acting at x-section, from
method of sections & equation of moment
equilibrium applied about longitudinal axis
J = polar moment of inertia at x-sectional area
c = outer radius pf the shaft
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5.2 THE TORSION FORMULA
• Shear stress at intermediate distance, 
T
=
J
• The above two equations are referred to as the
torsion formula
• Used only if shaft is circular, its material
homogenous, and it behaves in an linear-elastic
manner

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5.2 THE TORSION FORMULA
Solid shaft
• J can be determined using area element in the form
of a differential ring or annulus having thickness d
and circumference 2 .
• For this ring, dA = 2 d

J= c4
2
• J is a geometric property of the circular area and
is always positive. Common units used for its
measurement are mm4 and m4.

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5. Torsion
5.2 THE TORSION FORMULA
Tubular shaft

J= (co4  ci4)
2

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5. Torsion
5.2 THE TORSION FORMULA
Absolute maximum torsional stress
• Need to find location where ratio Tc/J is maximum
• Draw a torque diagram (internal torque  vs. x along
shaft)
• Sign Convention: T is positive, by right-hand rule, is
directed outward from the shaft
• Once internal torque throughout shaft is determined,
maximum ratio of Tc/J can be identified

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5.2 THE TORSION FORMULA
Procedure for analysis
Internal loading
• Section shaft perpendicular to its axis at point
where shear stress is to be determined
• Use free-body diagram and equations of
equilibrium to obtain internal torque at section
Section property
• Compute polar moment of inertia and x-sectional
area
• For solid section, J = c4/2
• For tube, J = (co4  ci2)/2

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5. Torsion
5.2 THE TORSION FORMULA
Procedure for analysis
Shear stress
• Specify radial distance , measured from centre
of x-section to point where shear stress is to be
found
• Apply torsion formula,  = T /J or max = Tc/J
• Shear stress acts on x-section in direction that is
always perpendicular to 

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5. Torsion
5.3 POWER TRANSMISSION
• Power is defined as work performed per unit of
time
P = T (d/dt)
• Instantaneous power is
• Since shaft’s angular velocity  = d/dt, we can
also express power as
P = T
• Frequency f of a shaft’s rotation is often reported.
It measures the number of cycles per second
and since 1 cycle = 2 radians, and  = 2f T, then
power
Equation 5-11 P = 2f T

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5.3 POWER TRANSMISSION
Shaft Design
• If power transmitted by shaft and its frequency of
rotation is known, torque is determined from Eqn
5-11
• Knowing T and allowable shear stress for
material, allow and applying torsion formula,

J T
=
c allow

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5.3 POWER TRANSMISSION
Shaft Design
• For solid shaft, substitute J = (/2)c4 to determine c
• For tubular shaft, substitute J = (/2)(co2  ci2) to
determine co and ci

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5. Torsion
5.4 ANGLE OF TWIST
• Angle of twist is important when analyzing reactions
on statically indeterminate shafts
L T(x) dx
 = ∫0
J(x) G
 = angle of twist, in radians
T(x) = internal torque at arbitrary position x, found
from method of sections and equation of
moment equilibrium applied about shaft’s axis
J(x) = polar moment of inertia as a function of x
G = shear modulus of elasticity for material
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5.4 ANGLE OF TWIST
Constant torque and x-sectional area
TL
 =
JG

If shaft is subjected to several different torques, or x-

sectional area or shear modulus changes suddenly
from one region of the shaft to the next, then apply
Eqn 5-15 to each segment before vectorially adding
each segment’s angle of twist:
TL
 =
JG
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5.4 ANGLE OF TWIST
Sign convention
• Use right-hand rule: torque and angle of twist are
positive when thumb is directed outward from the
shaft

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5. Torsion
5.4 ANGLE OF TWIST
Procedure for analysis
Internal torque
• Use method of sections and equation of moment
equilibrium applied along shaft’s axis
• If torque varies along shaft’s length, section made
at arbitrary position x along shaft is represented
as T(x)
• If several constant external torques act on shaft
between its ends, internal torque in each segment
must be determined and shown as a torque
diagram

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5. Torsion
5.4 ANGLE OF TWIST
Procedure for analysis
Angle of twist
• When circular x-sectional area varies along
shaft’s axis, polar moment of inertia expressed as
a function of its position x along its axis, J(x)
• If J or internal torque suddenly changes between
ends of shaft,  = ∫ (T(x)/J(x)G) dx or  = TL/JG
must be applied to each segment for which J, T
and G are continuous or constant
• Use consistent sign convention for internal torque
and also the set of units

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5.5 STATICALLY INDETERMINATE TORQUE-LOADED MEMBERS

• A torsionally loaded shaft is statically indeterminate

if moment equation of equilibrium, applied about
axis of shaft, is not enough to determine unknown
torques acting on the shaft

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5.5 STATICALLY INDETERMINATE TORQUE-LOADED MEMBERS

• From free-body diagram, reactive torques at

supports A and B are unknown, Thus,
 Mx = 0; T  TA  TB = 0
• Since problem is statically
indeterminate, formulate the
condition of compatibility; end
supports are fixed, thus angle of
twist of both ends should sum to
zero
A/B = 0

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5.5 STATICALLY INDETERMINATE TORQUE-LOADED MEMBERS

• Assume linear-elastic behavior, and using load-

displacement relationship,  = TL/JG, thus
compatibility equation can be written as
TA LAC TB LBC
 =0
JG JG
• Solving the equations
simultaneously, and realizing that
L = LAC + LBC, we get
LBC LAC
TA = T ( ) TB = T( )
L L
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5.5 STATICALLY INDETERMINATE TORQUE-LOADED MEMBERS

Procedure for analysis

Equilibrium
• Draw a free-body diagram
• Write equations of equilibrium about axis of shaft
Compatibility
• Express compatibility conditions in terms of
rotational displacement caused by reactive
torques
• Use torque-displacement relationship, such as
 = TL/JG
• Solve equilibrium and compatibility equations for
unknown torques
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5. Torsion
*5.6 SOLID NONCIRCULAR SHAFTS
• Shafts with noncircular x-sections are not
axisymmetric, as such, their x-sections will bulge or
warp when it is twisted
• Torsional analysis is complicated and thus is not
considered for this text.

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*5.6 SOLID NONCIRCULAR SHAFTS
• Results of analysis for
square, triangular and
elliptical x-sections are
shown in table

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5. Torsion
*5.7 THIN-WALLED TUBES HAVING CLOSED CROSS SECTIONS

• Thin-walled tubes of noncircular shape are used to

construct lightweight frameworks such as those in
aircraft
• This section will analyze such shafts with a closed
x-section
• As walls are thin, we assume stress is uniformly
distributed across the thickness of the tube

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*5.7 THIN-WALLED TUBES HAVING CLOSED CROSS SECTIONS

Shear flow
• Force equilibrium requires the
forces shown to be of equal
magnitude but opposite direction,
thus AtA = BtB
• This product is called shear flow
q, and can be expressed as

q = avgt

• Shear flow measures force per unit

length along tube’s x-sectional area
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5. Torsion
*5.7 THIN-WALLED TUBES HAVING CLOSED CROSS SECTIONS

Average shear stress

T
avg =
2tAm
avg = average shear stress acting over
thickness of tube
T = resultant internal torque at x-section
t = thickness of tube where avg is to be
determined
Am = mean area enclosed within
boundary of centerline of tube’s
thickness
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*5.7 THIN-WALLED TUBES HAVING CLOSED CROSS SECTIONS

Average shear stress

Since q = avgt, the shear flow throughout the x-
section is
T
q=
2Am

Angle of twist
Can be determined using energy methods

TL ds
=
4Am2G
∫
O
t

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*5.7 THIN-WALLED TUBES HAVING CLOSED CROSS SECTIONS

IMPORTANT
• Shear flow q is a product of tube’s thickness and
average shear stress. This value is constant at all
points along tube’s x-section. Thus, largest
average shear stress occurs where tube’s
thickness is smallest
• Both shear flow and average shear stress act
tangent to wall of tube at all points in a direction to
contribute to resultant torque

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5.8 STRESS CONCENTRATION
• Three common discontinuities
of the x-section are:
a) is a coupling, for connecting
2 collinear shafts together
b) is a keyway used to connect
gears or pulleys to a shaft
c) is a shoulder fillet used to
fabricate a single collinear
shaft from 2 shafts with
different diameters

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5. Torsion
5.8 STRESS CONCENTRATION
• Dots on x-section indicate
where maximum shear stress
will occur
• This maximum shear stress
can be determined from
torsional stress-concentration
factor, K

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5.8 STRESS CONCENTRATION
• K, can be obtained from
a graph as shown
• Find geometric ratio D/d
for appropriate curve
• Once abscissa r/d
calculated, value of K
found along ordinate
• Maximum shear stress is
then determined from

max = K(Tc/J)

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5. Torsion
5.8 STRESS CONCENTRATION
IMPORTANT
• Stress concentrations in shafts occur at points of
sudden x-sectional change. The more severe the
change, the larger the stress concentration
• For design/analysis, not necessary to know exact
shear-stress distribution on x-section. Instead,
obtain maximum shear stress using stress
concentration factor K
• If material is brittle, or subjected to fatigue
loadings, then stress concentrations need to be
considered in design/analysis.

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5. Torsion
*5.9 INELASTIC TORSION
• To perform a “plastic analysis”
for a material that has yielded,
the following conditions must
be met:
1. Shear strains in material must
vary linearly from zero at center of
shaft to its maximum at outer
boundary (geometry)
2. Resultant torque at section must
be equivalent to torque caused by
entire shear-stress distribution
over the x-section (loading)
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5. Torsion
*5.9 INELASTIC TORSION
• Expressing the loading
condition mathematically,
we get:

Equation 5-23 T = 2∫ A  2 d

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*5.9 INELASTIC TORSION
A. Maximum elastic torque
• For maximum elastic shear strain Y,
at outer boundary of the shaft, shear-
strain distribution along radial line will
look like diagram (b)
• Based on Eqn 5-23,

TY = (/2) Yc3

• From Eqn 5-13,

d =  (dx/)

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*5.9 INELASTIC TORSION
B. Elastic-plastic torque
• Used when material starts yielding,
and the yield boundary moves inward
toward the shaft’s centre, producing
an elastic core.
• Also, outer portion of shaft forms a
plastic annulus or ring
• General formula for elastic-plastic
material behavior,

T = (Y /6) (4c3  Y3)

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*5.9 INELASTIC TORSION
B. Elastic-plastic torque
Plastic torque
• Further increases in T will shrink the radius of
elastic core till all the material has yielded
• Thus, largest possible plastic torque is
TP = (2/3)Y c3

• Comparing with maximum elastic torque,

TP = 4TY / 3

• Angle of twist cannot be uniquely defined.

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5. Torsion
*5.9 INELASTIC TORSION
C. Ultimate torque
• Magnitude of Tu can be determined “graphically”
by integrating Eqn 5-23

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5. Torsion
*5.9 INELASTIC TORSION
C. Ultimate torque
• Segment shaft into finite
number of rings
• Area of ring is multiplied
by shear stress to obtain
force
• Determine torque with the
product of the force and 
• Addition of all torques for
entire x-section results in
the ultimate torque,
Tu ≈ 2 2

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5. Torsion
*5.9 INELASTIC TORSION
IMPORTANT
• Shear-strain distribution over radial line on shaft
based on geometric considerations and is
always remain linear
• Shear-stress distribution must be determined
from material behavior or shear stress-strain
diagram
• Once shear-stress distribution established, the
torque about the axis is equivalent to resultant
torque acting on x-section
• Perfectly plastic behavior assumes shear-stress
distribution is constant and the torque is called
plastic torque
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*5.10 RESIDUAL STRESS
• Residual stress distribution is calculated using
principles of superposition and elastic recovery

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5. Torsion
CHAPTER REVIEW
• Torque causes a shaft with circular x-section to
twist, such that shear strain in shaft is
proportional to its radial distance from its centre
• Provided that material is homogeneous and
Hooke’s law applies, shear stress determined
from torsion formula,  = (Tc)/J
• Design of shaft requires finding the geometric
parameter, (J/C) = (T/allow)
• Power generated by rotating shaft is reported,
from which torque is derived; P = T

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5. Torsion
CHAPTER REVIEW
• Angle of twist of circular shaft determined from
L T(x) dx
 =∫
0 JG
• If torque and JG are constant, then
TL
 =
JG
• For application, use a sign convention for
internal torque and be sure material does not
yield, but remains linear elastic

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5. Torsion
CHAPTER REVIEW
• If shaft is statically indeterminate, reactive
torques determined from equilibrium,
compatibility of twist, and torque-twist
relationships, such as  = TL/JG
• Solid noncircular shafts tend to warp out of
plane when subjected to torque. Formulas are
available to determine elastic shear stress and
twist for these cases
• Shear stress in tubes determined by
considering shear flow. Assumes that shear
stress across each thickness of tube is
constant
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5. Torsion
CHAPTER REVIEW
• Shear stress in tubes determined from
 = T/2tAm
• Stress concentrations occur in shafts when x-
section suddenly changes. Maximum shear
stress determined using stress concentration
factor, K (found by experiment and represented
in graphical form). max = K(Tc/J)
• If applied torque causes material to exceed
elastic limit, then stress distribution is not
proportional to radial distance from centerline
of shaft

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5. Torsion
CHAPTER REVIEW
• Instead, such applied torque is related to stress
distribution using the shear-stress-shear-strain
diagram and equilibrium
• If a shaft is subjected to plastic torque, and
then released, it will cause material to respond
elastically, causing residual shear stress to be
developed in the shaft

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