What is ethics? If I ask myself, why should I be moral? Is that doing normative ethics or metaethics?

Ethics is derived from the Greek word ethos, which means custom or character. Again, it asks the question, what is good? It is metaethics.

Widely understood, ethics is a branch of philosophy that studies the rightness or Now, in the course of the development of ethics, there is this what we call applied
wrongness of a human action. ethics. This is the actual application of ethical or moral theories for the purpose of
- it is concerned about how human persons do ought to act. deciding which ethical or moral actions are appropriate in a given situation.
- the search for a definition of what is a right conduct and a good life
Casuists
Another one to consider is that ethics is not the same with morality. Although, many -adherents of applied ethics are concerned with individual moral problems such as
philosophers believe that these terms can be used interchangeably. Let us understand abortion, euthanasia, and attempt to resolve conflicting issues that surround this
why. moral problem
-they also act in an advisory capacity, such as guiding individuals in their choice of
Ethics actions.
-the theory of right action and the greater good. Ex:
-systematic study of the underlying principles of morality (interested on a more They may attempt to resolve a conflicting duty of a mother suffering from ectopic
general problem) pregnancy who has no other option than to abort the fetus.
-science of morals
Applied ethics is divided in different fields:
Morality [Link] ethics - ethical behavior in the corporate world
-"practice", rightness or wrongness of human action [Link] and environmental ethics -deals with issues relating to health, welfare,
-prescriptive (it tells us what we ought to do and exhorts us to follow the right way and responsibility we have toward people and our environment
-practice of ethics [Link] ethics - deals with the principles and guidelines that regulate corporate
welfare within societies.
Two ways of doing ethical enquiry (Types of ethics)
1. Normative ethics (prescriptive – means relating to imposition) Difference between these 3 major types in a situation:
-seeks to set norms or standards that regulate right and wrong or good and bad A police officer shoots a terrorist who is about to blow up a crowded shopping mall.
conduct (these are the duties that we should follow; the consequences of our behaviors
on others) METAETHICS
-normative ethics attempts to develop guidelines or theories about how we ought to -the act of the police officer is morally wrong, because it is always wrong to kill.
behave. However, if police do not shoot the terrorist, many innocent people will die or get
injured.
2. Metaethics (descriptive)
-a type of ethical enquiry that aims to understand the nature and dynamics of ethical NORMATIVE ETHICS
principles (ask questions about the nature and origin of moral facts), as well as the -it is the right thing to do in this situation because not doing so will result in death of
way we learn and acquire moral beliefs so many people. Hence, the action might be morally correct.

In its generality, normative ethics urges us to do good at all times, while metaethics asks the APPLIED ETHICS
question what is good? -casuists may say that the police officer is just doing his best to fulfill his duty, that is,
to protect as many innocent lives as possible.
Meaning, Nature, and Dynamics of Morality (distinguishes ethics from morality) As mentioned about morality; in determining such (morality of human actions), the
moral agent is guided by the broader rules or principles of ethics.
Ethics
-comes from the Greek word ethos For instance:
-we may use the word immoral in lieu of the word unethical or use the word moral The person’s moral belief that killing is wrong may stem from the basic ethical
instead of ethical principle of respect for persons or non-maleficence. – indeed this example further
-generally, refers to the systematic study of the rightness and wrongness of a human explains the difference between ethics and morality.
action
-is the specific branch of philosophy that studies morality (the rightness or wrongness If ETHICS says that killing is wrong because it violates the basic ethical principles of respect
of human action) for persons or non-maleficence, morality on the other hand, says, do not kill because it is wrong.
-the science of morals
This is the reason why ETHICS is understood as the science of morals, while morality
Morality is the practice of basic principles of ethics.
-comes from the Latin word mos or mores in plural form
-generally understood as the rightness or the wrongness of a human action
-the practice of ethics

This is the reason why a moral/ethical person is one who is good and does the right thing while
immoral/unethical person is one who is bad and does what is wrong.

To conclude, ethics provides systems of moral principles and the reasons why these
principles are valid. Hence, ethics is more concerned with the theories that can be used
to explain why a particular moral principle is valid or not, right or wrong.

For ethicists, they have arrived at some of the basic ethical principles that may help
the rightness or wrongness of a human action, and these are:
[Link] for person
[Link] and confidentiality
[Link] and informed consent
[Link]
[Link]-maleficence
[Link]
Moral Standards versus Non-moral standards - Normally promotes the good, the welfare and wellbeing of humans, animals
and the environment
Why the need to distinguish moral standards from non-moral ones? The very reason - Combined norms and values. In other words, norms+values=moral standards
for this is because we have moral beliefs coming from our different cultures and
context. Norms (general rules about our actions or behaviors)
Example:
For example, wearing of a hijab, in traditional Muslim communities is the most We are always under the obligation to fulfill our promises, or it is always believed
appropriate act that women have to do in terms of dressing up. In fact, for some that killing innocent people is wrong.
Muslims, showing parts of women’s bodies like face or legs is despicable. However,
in many parts of the world, especially in western societies, most people don’t mind Values (understood enduring beliefs about what is good and desirable, or not)
when women barely cover their bodies. Example:
We may say helping the poor is good or cheating during exams is bad.
Thus, this shows that different cultures have different moral standards.
According to many scholars, moral standards have characteristics:
The danger here is that one culture may impose its own cultural standards on others 1. Moral standards deal with matters we think can seriously injure or benefit
which may result in a clash in cultural values and beliefs. When this happens, as we humans, animals, and environment, such as child abuse, rape, and murder.
already know, violence and crime may result. 2. Are not established or changed by the decisions of authoritative individuals or
bodies.
How to address this conundrum? This is where we understand the difference between 3. Moral standards are overriding, that is, they take precedence over other
moral standards and non-moral ones that comes in, and understanding the difference standards and considerations, especially of self-interest.
between the two may have far reaching implications. Distinguishing them through 4. Moral standards are based on impartial considerations. Hence, moral
the aid of the principles of theories and ethics, we will be able to identify fundamental standards are fair and just.
ethical values that may guide our actions. 5. Moral standards are associated with special emotions and vocabulary.

Once we know that a particular belief or value is non moral, we will be able to avoid What are non-moral standards?
the risk of cultural reductionism and the unnecessary imposition of one’s own cultural - Refer to standards by which we judge what is good or bad and right or wrong
standards on others. in a non-moral way.

The point here is that such standards are non-morals then we don’t have the right to Example:
impose them on others. But if such standards are moral ones, such as not killing or Standards of etiquette (we judge as manners good or bad)
harming people, then we may have the right to force others to act accordingly. This Standards we call the law (we judge as legal or illegal)
way, we may be able to find a common moral ground such as agreeing not to steal, Standards of aesthetics (we judge art as good or rubbish)
lie, cheat, kill, harm, and deceive our fellow human beings. Basically, non-moral standards are matters of taste or preference.

What are moral standards? If moral standards say, do not harm innocent people, or don’t steal.
- are norms that individuals or groups have the kinds of actions believed to be Non-moral standards follow do not text while driving or do not talk when the
morally right or wrong, as well as the values placed on what we believed to be mouth is full.
morally good or morally bad.
Moral Dilemmas In other words, the moral agent does not know which action is morally right or wrong

Dilemma is a situation where a person is forced to choose between two or more Example:
conflicting options, neither of which is acceptable – the person has to choices to make Promise of going home early to my son but only my way home, I saw a sick
that will all have results she doesn’t want. old man who needs to be brought to the hospital. One option must be better
than the other; only, it needs fuller knowledge of the situation; thus,
When dilemmas involve human actions which have moral implications, they are EPISTEMIC moral dilemmas
called ethical or moral dilemmas.
Ontological
Moral dilemmas -there are two or more moral requirements that conflict with each other, yet
-are situations where persons, who are called “moral agents” in ethics, are forced to neither of these conflicting moral requirements overrides each other
choose between two or more conflicting options, neither of which resolves the -neither of the moral requirements is stronger than the other; hence, the moral
situation in a morally acceptable manner. agent can hardly choose between the conflicting moral requirements

Example in a situation of ectopic pregnancy - the fetus does not develop in the uterus Example:
a. Resort to abortion A military doctor is attending to the needs of the wounded soldier of the war.
b. Does not resort to abortion Unfortunately, two soldiers urgently need blood transfusion. However, only
one bag of blood is available at that moment.
Now, there are three conditions that must be present in moral dilemmas: To whom does the doctor administer the blood transfusion?
1. The person or the agent of a moral action is obliged to make a decision about
which course of action is best. 2. Self-imposed and world-imposed dilemmas
In the ectopic pregnant case, abortion is the best course of action
2. There must be different courses of action to choose from. Self-imposed
There must be two or more conflicting actions for moral dilemmas to occur. -caused by the agent’s wrongdoings
3. No matter what course of action is taken, some moral principles are always
compromised. Example:
Thus, there is no perfect solution to the problem. David is running for the position of town mayor. During the campaign period,
he promised the indigenous community to protect their virgin forest just to
And that in moral dilemmas, the moral agent seems fated to commit something gain their votes but the same time, he seeks support from the mining
wrong, which implies that she is bound to morally fail because in one way or another corporation. Fortunately, he won the elections yet experienced a dilemma, his
she will fail to do something which she ought to do. promised to the indigenous people and at the same time, allows the mining to
In other words, by choosing one of the possible moral requirements, the person also fails on destroy their forest. Here, he created a situation where it is impossible to be
others – Benjiemen Labastin discharged from both obligations.

Different types of Moral dilemmas World-imposed dilemmas

1. Epistemic and ontological dilemmas -certain events in the world placed the moral agent in a situation of moral
Epistemic conflict.
-there are two or more moral requirements that conflict with each other
-the moral agent hardly knows which one takes precedence over the other
 Example: Multi-person dilemmas:
In the movie, Sophie’s Choice, where she has been asked to choose which of -one agent, p1, ought to do A, a second agent, p2, ought to do B, and though
her two children will be sent to the gas chamber. If she does not choose then each agent can do what he ought to do, it is not possible for both p1 to do A
both will be sent to their death. Sophie chooses her daughter to go to the gas and p2 to do B
chamber, while her son was sent to the Children’s camp.
Example:
3. Obligation dilemmas and prohibition dilemmas A family may be torn in choosing to terminate or prolong the life of a family
member.
Obligation dilemmas: -the multi-person dilemma requires more than choosing what is right; it also
-more than one feasible action is obligatory entails that the persons involved reached a general consensus.

Example: An organization may have to choose between complying with the wage law by
For example, a father is unable to rescue both of his children from a car cutting its workforce or by retaining its current workforce by paying them
accident. He has an obligation to rescue his first child, and he has an obligation below the required minimum wage.
to rescue his second child, but neither obligation outweighs the other.

Prohibition dilemmas
- In Prohibition dilemmas, all feasible actions are forbidden

Example:
-Sophie’s choice (classic example)
-it is forbidden to kill one’s parents and forbidden to allow them to die

4. Single agent and multi person dilemmas

Single agent dilemma:

-ought, all things considered, to do A, ought, all things considered, to do B, and
she cannot do both A and B.
-the moral agent is compelled to act on two or more equally the same moral
options but cannot choose both

Example:
Medical doctor found out that a patient has HIV. The doctor may experience
tension between the legal requirement to report the case and the desire to
respect confidentiality. Although the medical code of ethics acknowledges our
obligation to follow legal requirements and to intervene to protect the
vulnerable