CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

This chapter presents literature and studies related to this

research in order to strengthen the foundation of the investigation of

the present study, as well as to provide the researcher with insight and

perspectives in conducting the present research. In addition, the

researcher consulted books, journals, and accessed different internet

website as resources that helped in the completion of the present

study.

Patterns and Trends of Academic Procrastination

Over the years, numerous studies have examined its patterns

and evolving trends, revealing insights into why students

procrastinate, how it affects academic performance, and what

strategies may help mitigate its impact. This section reviews existing

literature that highlights these patterns and trends, offering a clearer

understanding of the scope, causes, and implications of academic

procrastination in the current educational landscape.

Academic procrastination is a common challenge faced by

students across various disciplines, including criminology. Recent

studies have identified that procrastination can manifest differently

depending on students’ academic levels and the nature of their

courses. According to Steel (2015), emphasizes that many students

delay tasks due to poor time management and difficulty engaging with
 19

challenging assignments. This variation underscores the importance of

understanding procrastination within specific academic contexts, as

different fields

may present unique pressures and motivations, Rakes & Dunn (2015).

These patterns of procrastination aren’t limited to specific

academic levels or fields; they are widespread among students. On the

other hand, Mahasneh et al. (2016) point out that recognizing these

trends is crucial for creating effective support systems that can assist

students in overcoming procrastination and achieving academic

success. By understanding the underlying factors that contribute to

these behaviors, educators and institutions can implement strategies

that encourage a more proactive and engaged approach to learning.

One common form is socially-focused procrastination, where

students end up prioritizing social activities over their studies. Whether

it's spending time with friends or engaging in extracurricular, the

temptation of social interactions can make it difficult for them to focus

on academic responsibilities. As a result, assignments get pushed to

the back burner, leading to a build-up of stress and anxiety. Social

factors, such as peer pressure and the desire to maintain relationships,

have been shown to play a significant role in this behavior, Malkovsky

et al., (2019).

Another type is optimistic procrastination, where students

convince themselves, they work best under pressure. This belief can
 20

make them delay tasks, thinking they can handle them efficiently at

the last minute. However, as deadlines approach, they often realize

they’re overwhelmed, resulting in poor-quality work and heightened

stress. This pattern has been observed in students who mistakenly

think they can manage their workload in the final stretch, only to find

that the pre-

-ssure has the opposite effect, Brougham & Hale (2016).

Lastly, ambivalent procrastination arises from internal conflicts,

where students feel torn between the desire for personal

independence and the need to fulfill academic responsibilities. This

form is often driven by a lack of intrinsic motivation or confusion about

their academic goals, causing hesitation and delays in completing

tasks. It’s particularly evident when students struggle to balance

personal desires with the demands of their studies, Hailikari et al.,

(2021).

Moreover, Sirois and Pychyl (2016), conducted a study that

explored the relationship between procrastination, stress, and

emotional regulation among university students. Their findings

indicated that high levels of stress often lead to increased

procrastination, particularly among students who struggle with

managing their emotions effectively. This highlights how emotional

factors can create a cycle of avoidance and delay in academic tasks.

 21

Similarly, Steel (2014) performed a comprehensive meta-

analysis, examining procrastination across different contexts. His

analysis found that certain academic fields, particularly the

humanities, tend to experience higher rates of procrastination

compared to more technical disciplines, such as engineering or

science. This suggests that the nature of the academic environment

can significantly influence procrastination behaviors.

In line with this, Dunn (2015) focused on the motivational

aspects of procrastination, revealing that students with lower intrinsic

motivation are more likely to procrastinate. Their study noted

variations in procrastination levels depending on the area of study,

indicating that the degree of interest in the subject matter plays a

crucial role in students' tendencies to delay their work.

Lastly, Akinsola and Tella (2020) provided insights into

procrastination among Nigerian undergraduates, identifying task

aversion and poor self-regulation as significant contributors to

procrastination. Their research highlighted that student in more

demanding academic programs often face greater challenges, leading

to increased procrastination behaviors.

Underlying Factors Contributing to Academic Procrastination

Previous studies revealed various parameters describing the

factors contributing to academic procrastination. This study described

the underlying factors contributing to academic procrastination in

 22

terms of task aversion, perfectionism, fear of failure, and lack of

motivation. These four contributing factors will be considered vital

criterion in determining the underlying factors contributing to

academic procrastination in the BS Criminology student in Naga

College Foundation, Inc.

Several emotional and psychological factors contribute to

academic procrastination. One significant factor is task aversion,

where students avoid tasks, they find unpleasant or overwhelming.

According to Wong and M. C. (2017) found that when students

perceive a task as tedious, they are more likely to postpone their work.

Another critical factor is perfectionism. Moreover, Tice and Baumeister

(2018) in a longitudinal study, the researchers observed that

procrastinators reported lower stress and less illness than no

procrastinators early in the semester, but they reported higher stress

and more illness later, along with lower grades. This suggests that

procrastination is a self-defeating behavior pattern marked by short-

term benefits and long-term costs, emphasizing the role of self-control

in managing procrastination examine the role of self-control, finding

that students with lower self-control tend to procrastinate more. They

emphasize how feelings of anxiety and stress can make procrastination

worse, suggesting that developing better self-regulation skills is crucial

for managing time effectively and reducing the urge to delay important

tasks.
 23

Similarly, Sirois and Pychyl (2016) explore how emotional

regulation is linked to procrastination, identifying task aversion and

perfectionism as key contributors. They point out that students who

struggle to manage their emotions often shy away from tasks that

trigger negative feelings, creating a cycle of procrastination and

increasing academic stress. Flett and Hewitt (2016) further highlight

this issue by investigating the connection between perfectionism and

procrastination. They reveal that the fear of not meeting high personal

standards can lead students to postpone their work. Recognizing these

perfectionistic tendencies is vital, as it can inform strategies to help

students overcome procrastination.

Further, Steel (2014) takes a broader view with a meta-analysis

of various studies on procrastination. He examines factors like

motivation and task aversion, concluding that procrastination often

negatively impacts performance. This finding underscores the

importance of addressing the psychological issues that contribute to

procrastination.

Hence, in the study conducted by Saltürk (2022) investigates the

causes of procrastination and perfectionism among Science High

School students using a phenomenological approach. Through semi-

structured interviews with 21 students, the study uncovers that

students' procrastination is significantly influenced by both their own

expectations and those imposed by others. Key factors identified

 24

include social support systems, fear of failure, and a lack of motivation.

The findings suggest that fostering stronger motivation and cognitive

strategies can help students overcome procrastination, highlighting its

growing prevalence in educational contexts worldwide.

Therefore, Rogers and Kessler (2020) explore the interplay

between motivation and procrastination, emphasizing the impact of

external versus internal motivation. They found that students who rely

heavily on external validation are more likely to procrastinate, as their

motivation fluctuates based on external rewards and pressures.

Conversely, those with intrinsic motivation tend to engage more

actively with their tasks, resulting in lower procrastination rates.

Meanwhile, Smith, et al (2017), examined the frequently noted

but poorly understood relationship between procrastination and

perfectionistic concerns. The goal of the study was to create and

evaluate a model that would explain how procrastination is caused by

perfectionistic concerns. According to the paradigm, a person's ideal

and actual selves diverge due to perfectionistic worries, which makes

them feel inadequate. Procrastination is subsequently brought on by

this sense of not meeting one's own expectations. 317 undergraduate

students were examined in order to test this approach. After answering

questions about their perfectionistic worries, students spent a week

answering online surveys twice a day to gauge their procrastination

tendencies and sentiments of inconsistency.

 25

Moreover, Dey, et. al., (2023) explores the mediating

mechanisms that are important in the relationship between

procrastination and fear of failure, as well as between academic

satisfaction and fear of failure. 292 undergraduate students that are

enrolled in various university departments make up the study sample.

The results show that procrastination serves as a mediating variable in

the relationship between academic satisfaction, fear of failure, and

difficulty in emotion regulation, while difficulty in emotion regulation

acts as a mediator in the relationship between procrastination and fear

of failure. This suggests that emotion regulation difficulties may be one

of the mediating mechanisms in this reciprocal relationship.

Consequently, the results of this study indicate that therapies meant to

enhance a person's capacity for emotion management.

Finally, the study by Zarrin et al. (2020) explored the relationship

between fear of failure, self-regulation, and academic procrastination

among 198 students at the University of Isfahan. The findings showed

that male students were more prone to procrastination, whereas

female students reported higher levels of fear of failure and

demonstrated better organizational skills. The research revealed that

fear of failure was positively linked to procrastination, while self-

regulation strategies such as goal-setting, self-evaluation, and

organization were negatively associated with procrastination.

Additionally, fear of failure and responsibility were identified as

 26

significant predictors of academic procrastination. These results

suggest that interventions targeting fear of failure and promoting self-

regulation could be effective strategies to reduce procrastination in

students.

Effectiveness of Self-Discipline Strategies

Previous studies disclosed some parameters to describe the level

of effectiveness of various self-discipline strategies in reducing

academic procrastination. This study describes the level of

effectiveness of various self-discipline strategies in reducing academic

procrastination along with the aspects of goal setting, time

management techniques, self-monitoring, and behavior modification.

These four aspects will be considered vital criterion in measuring the

level of effectiveness of various self-discipline strategies in reducing

academic procrastination in BS Criminology students from first year to

third year level in Naga College Foundation, Inc.

Implementing effective self-discipline strategies is vital for

addressing academic procrastination. Techniques such as goal setting,

time management, self-monitoring, and behavior modification have

shown promise in helping students manage their workloads more

effectively. According to Alderman (2019) emphasizes that setting

specific, achievable goals can give students clearer focus and greater

motivation.

Meanwhile, Misra and McKean (2014), examined the levels of

 27

academic stress and its relationship to anxiety, time management, and

leisure satisfaction among a sample of 249 college students. Findings

indicated that students experienced moderate levels of academic

stress and anxiety. Effective time management behaviors were

associated with lower academic stress and anxiety, while leisure

satisfaction was inversely related to academic stress. The study

suggests that interventions focusing on improving time management

skills and promoting leisure activities may help in reducing academic

stress among college students.

Moreover, Çetin (2015) examined the roles of academic

motivation and self-regulated learning in predicting college students'

academic performance. The study highlighted that self-regulated

learning involves skills like planning, goal-setting, progress monitoring,

and reflective practices that enhance students' educational outcomes.

Drawing from theoretical frameworks such as Deci and Ryan’s Self-

Determination Theory and Zimmerman’s model of self-regulated

learning, Çetin emphasized that motivated students are more likely to

adopt effective learning strategies, manage their time efficiently, and

persist through challenges. Empirical evidence cited in the literature

review showed that higher levels of motivation and self-regulation are

associated with better academic achievement. The study underscored

the need for educational initiatives that develop these skills to improve

student success.
 28

Furthermore, Lourenço and Paiva (2020) conducted a study with

688 primary school students in northern Portugal to explore the link

between self-regulated learning, time management, and academic

performance. The study found that self-regulated learning positively

influenced students' ability to manage their time both in the short and

long term. Additionally, effective time management planning was

associated with improved academic outcomes, particularly in language

and mathematics. These findings highlight the crucial role of time

management and self-regulated learning strategies in enhancing

student success and engagement.

A study by Hailikari et al. (2021) highlights the importance of

self-regulated learning and time management in reducing

procrastination. The researchers found that students who adopt goal-

setting and self-regulation strategies are more proactive in completing

tasks and are less likely to engage in avoidance behaviors.

Additionally, psychological flexibility, which involves maintaining focus

on long-term goals even when tasks are difficult, is also considered a

valuable strategy in combating procrastination.

Further, research by Wolters et al. (2017) indicates that

therapeutic strategies such as cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) and

acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT) are effective in helping

students manage stress and negative emotions, thus reducing

procrastination. These approaches aim to strengthen self-efficacy and

 29

emotional resilience, which are key in overcoming procrastination.

Moreover, metacognitive learning strategies, including self-regulation

and goal-setting, have been shown to be strongly associated with

lower procrastination levels, as they help improve motivation and

academic performance.

Hence, the study conducted by Brougham and Hale (2016)

further support

this perspective by investigating the role of time management in

academic success. They argue that effective time management

techniques not only improve academic performance but also empower

students to prioritize tasks and allocate their time wisely, which is

essential for reducing procrastination.

Calonia et al. (2023) The absence of systematic, evidence-based

procedures in mentoring sessions that specifically target school-

relevant outcomes, like academic performance and school behavior, is

a limitation of school-based mentoring (SBM). In order to address this

issue, we created and experimentally assessed a short SBM program

that aims to improve middle school children's behavioral and academic

performance. It is based on techniques modified from academic

interventions and evidence-based counseling. According to the

findings, students who were randomly assigned to instrumental SBM

for an average of eight sessions over a two-and-a-half-month period (N

= 74) demonstrated higher life satisfaction, lower school behavioral

 30

office referrals, and better math grades than students who were

randomly assigned to the control group (N = 60).

Furthering the discussion on self-management strategies, Efendi

and Wangid (2021) explored the impact of self-monitoring and self-

reward techniques on reducing procrastination levels among high

school students. Through an experimental design that utilized a time

series methodology alongside the student-Student Procrastination

Assessment Scale (PASS), their results indicated that implementing

these strategies was effective in lowering academic procrastination

behaviors. The study reported an F Count value of 1.304 with a

significance result of 0.028, demonstrating that self-monitoring, self-

management, and self-reward can significantly help students combat

procrastination, thereby enhancing their academic performance.

Sides and Cuevas (2020) focused on the effects of goal setting

on the mathematics performance of elementary school students,

specifically in mastering multiplication facts. The study involved

seventy-one students engaging in weekly graphing and reflection

exercises centered around their multiplication abilities. While goal

setting led to improved performance, the authors noted that self-

efficacy was not significantly affected, suggesting that educators

should integrate goal-setting strategies into their teaching approaches

to maximize learning outcomes. The findings highlight the potential

benefits of goal setting in educational settings and call for further

 31

research to explore its impact on students' emotional and motivational

qualities.

Synthesis State-of-the-Art

The related studies read substantiated the data obtained in this

study. Thus, it was assumed from the related studies that there were

similarities and differences between and among them with the present

proposed work.

The studies conducted by Steel (2015), Rakes and Dunn (2015),

Mahasneh, et. al., (2016), Malkovsky, et. al., (2019), Brougham and

Hale (2016), Hailikari, et. al., (2021), Sirois and Pychyl (2016), Steel

(2014), Dunn (2015), and Akinsola and Tella (2020), all explored the

patterns and trends of academic procrastination, sharing a common

focus on identifying its causes, effects, and behavioral tendencies

among students. A key similarity among these studies lies in their

emphasis on psychological, emotional, and cognitive factors such as

self-regulation, time management, motivation, and anxiety, which

significantly influence procrastinatory behavior. However, they differ in

scope and methodology—some utilized quantitative approaches to

statistically examine correlations, while others adopted qualitative or

mixed methods to gain deeper insight into students' personal

experiences and coping strategies. Additionally, cultural context and

educational settings varied across the studies, contributing to nuanced

 32

perspectives on how procrastination manifests in different student

populations.

Meanwhile, the studies conducted by Wong and M.C. (2017),

Tice and Baumister (2018), Sirois and Pychyl (2016), Flett and Hewitt

(2016), Steel (2014), Salturk (2022), Roger and Kessler (2020), Smith,

et. al., (2017), Dey, et. al., (2023), and Zarrin, et. al., (2020), all

focused on uncovering the underlying factors contributing to academic

procrastination. These studies collectively highlight common

psychological and emotional drivers such as perfectionism, fear of

failure, low self-efficacy, impulsivity, and poor emotional regulation. A

shared theme among them is the exploration of procrastination as a

coping mechanism for emotional discomfort or negative self-

perception. However, they differ in theoretical lens and research

emphasis—while some studies emphasized emotional and personality-

based roots, others took a more behavioral or cognitive approach.

Variations also lie in demographic focus and cultural context, offering

diverse insights into how these underlying factors influence

procrastination across different academic environments and

populations.

Further, the studies conducted by Alderman (2019), Misra and

McKean (2014), Cetin (2015), Lourenco and Paiva (2020), Hailikari, et.

al., (2021), Wolters, et. al., (2017), Brougham and Hale (2016),

Calonia, et. al., (2023), Efendi and Wangid (2021), and Sides and
 33

Cuevas (2020), all examined the effectiveness of self-discipline

strategies in improving academic performance and managing

procrastination. A key similarity among these studies is their

recognition of self-regulation, goal-setting, time management, and

intrinsic motivation as crucial components of effective self-discipline.

Most studies affirmed that students who consistently apply self-

discipline techniques tend to experience reduced stress levels and

higher academic success. However, the studies differ in focus and

methodology, some emphasized stress management and time use,

while others, assessed intervention programs and cultural factors. The

differences also lie in target populations and educational contexts,

providing varied perspectives on how self-discipline strategies are

applied and their outcomes in different learning environments.

Gap Bridged by the Study

The literature and studies reviewed commonly addressed the

issues of academic procrastination and the use of self-discipline

strategies such as goal setting, time management, self-monitoring,

and behavior modification. These studies consistently emphasized the

importance of these strategies in managing procrastination and

improving academic performance. They also explored the

psychological and behavioral aspects influencing procrastination,

including motivation, emotional regulation, and task aversion. Most of

the existing research provided a general understanding of how

 34

students apply self-discipline to overcome academic delays, typically

across diverse student populations and educational settings.

This study stands out for its unique focus on criminology

students at Naga College Foundation, Inc. It specifically examines how

the stressors and academic demands unique to criminology influence

procrastination behavior and the effectiveness of self-discipline

strategies. Unlike previous research, this study also investigates how

these strategies vary in effectiveness depending on the students'

academic level, offering a developmental perspective on

procrastination. By situating the study in a specific field and cultural

context, it provides targeted insights that can support more effective,

discipline-specific academic interventions.

Theoretical Framework

This study was anchored on three theories: The Temporal

Motivation Theory by Schimidt, et. al., (2023), Cognitive Behavioral

Theory by Moore (2019), and Goal Setting Theory by Paul Main (2022).

These theories take a comprehensive view about the study and used

as the guiding principles in studying the patterns of academic

procrastination and strategies for self-discipline among criminology

students of Naga College Foundation, Inc. The interpretation of these

theories is shown in Figure 1.

Temporal Motivation Theory (TMT), developed and refined by

Schmidt et al. (2023), integrates elements from several motivational

 35

theories—including expectancy theory, hyperbolic discounting, and

need theory—to provide a comprehensive explanation for

procrastination. Central to TMT is the equation that motivation

increases when the value of a task and the expectancy of success are

high, and decreases when the delay before a reward is long or when

impulsiveness is high. In simpler terms, individuals are more

motivated to complete tasks that they find personally meaningful,

believe they can succeed in, and that offer relatively immediate

rewards. Conversely, they tend to delay tasks that are viewed as low

in value, difficult to complete, or whose rewards are perceived as

distant and abstract.

One of the core mechanisms behind procrastination in TMT is

hyperbolic discounting, which refers to the tendency to devalue

rewards that are further in the future. For example, a student may

know that studying for a major exam will lead to long-term academic

success, but the benefits feel too remote compared to the immediate

gratification of browsing social media or watching television. As a

result, the student procrastinates—choosing short-term pleasure over

long-term gain. This framework helps explain why procrastination is

not simply a matter of poor time management but a deeper

motivational issue influenced by how we perceive time, value, and

personal capability.
 36

TMT also highlights the importance of perceived value and

expectancy in

IMPROVED STRATEGIES
FOR SELF-DISCIPLINE
IN COMBATING
ACADEMIC
PROCRASTINATION

TEMPORAL GOAL SETTING COGNITIVE

MOTIVATION
THEORY BEHAVIORAL
THEORY (TMT)
THEORY
Moore (2019)
Schmidt et al., (2023)
Paul Main (2022)
“Procrastination
“Well-formed
results from a specific “Detrimental
combination of challenging, yet thought patterns
motivation, time, and achievable goals or cognitive
the value of a task. enable distortions result
Tasks that are performance and in emotional
perceived as more motivational suffering and
valuable and have a improvement.” undesirable
higher expectation of
habits, such as
success are less
procrastination.”
likely to be
procrastinated.
Conversely, tasks
with high delay and
high impulsiveness
are more likely to

Figure 1
 37

Theoretical Paradigm

task engagement. If students view academic tasks as unimportant,

irrelevant to their goals, or too difficult to succeed in, they are more

likely to delay engaging in those tasks. On the other hand, when

students believe that completing a task will lead to meaningful

success or fulfillment, and they feel capable of accomplishing it, they

are more likely to initiate and complete the task in a timely manner.

This understanding emphasizes that motivation is dynamic and

shaped by an individual's beliefs, context, and emotional state, rather

than being a fixed trait.

This theory is particularly relevant to the present study, which

explores procrastination among criminology students at Naga College

Foundation, Inc. TMT provides a useful lens to examine how these

students evaluate their academic tasks—both in terms of personal

value and perceived attainability—and how these evaluations

influence their motivation to complete work. By understanding how

criminology students discount future academic rewards or struggle

with impulsiveness, the study aims to uncover specific patterns and

contributing factors to their procrastination. This theoretical

framework supports the investigation into how different academic

levels and stressors affect students' perceptions of task value and

success, ultimately offering insights into targeted interventions that

 38

can enhance motivation and reduce procrastination in this unique

academic context.

Goal Setting Theory, as explored by Moore (2019), posits that

clearly defined, specific, and challenging goals significantly enhance

motivation and performance. The theory suggests that when

individuals have concrete goals, they are more likely to stay focused,

exert effort, and persist in the face of difficulties. This sense of

direction helps individuals prioritize their tasks and avoid distractions,

thus minimizing tendencies toward procrastination. Goals that are

both challenging and attainable stimulate higher performance, while

vague or overly broad goals may lead to indecision, lack of focus, and

task avoidance.

A key component of Goal Setting Theory is the concept of

breaking down large objectives into smaller, manageable tasks. This

process reduces feelings of being overwhelmed and increases an

individual’s confidence in completing the work. Smaller milestones

create a sense of accomplishment that helps sustain motivation over

time. As progress becomes visible, it reinforces continued effort, which

is essential for long-term academic and personal success. This

approach not only improves performance but also nurtures self-

discipline and resilience, both of which are critical in managing

workload and avoiding procrastination.

 39

Furthermore, the theory highlights the importance of feedback

and self-monitoring. When individuals can track their progress toward

specific goals, they are more likely to stay on course and adjust their

behavior when necessary. This aspect is especially important in

academic settings where students must juggle multiple tasks,

deadlines, and expectations. Establishing measurable and time-bound

goals allows students to better allocate their time and resources,

thereby reducing the likelihood of procrastination driven by

uncertainty or lack of motivation.

This theory is particularly relevant to the present study on

academic procra-

-stination among criminology students at Naga College Foundation,

Inc. By analyzing how these students set, pursue, and manage their

academic goals, the study aims to uncover whether the practice of

defining specific, challenging, yet achievable goals contributes to

reduced procrastination. Understanding the strategies criminology

students use—such as breaking complex tasks into smaller parts—can

offer valuable insights into improving their time management and self-

discipline. This connection supports the development of targeted

interventions that empower students to take control of their academic

tasks, reducing procrastination and fostering academic success in a

field known for its unique challenges and stressors.

 40

Cognitive Theory, developed by Aaron Beck and studied in

depth by Paul Main (2022), highlights the interconnectedness of

thoughts, emotions, behaviors, and physiological experiences. The

theory posits that maladaptive thought patterns—known as cognitive

distortions—can lead to negative emotional states and

counterproductive behaviors such as procrastination. For example, a

student who believes they must perform flawlessly may avoid starting

assignments for fear of failure, leading to chronic delays. CBT aims to

help individuals identify and challenge these distorted thoughts,

replacing them with healthier, more balanced thinking. This process

ultimately leads to improved emotional regulation and behavior,

including reduced procrastination and more effective engagement with

academic tasks.

One of the key strengths of CBT is its practical application in

educational

settings. By teaching students how to recognize and reframe negative

thought patterns, CBT enables them to adopt more goal-directed,

constructive behaviors. Techniques such as thought journaling,

cognitive restructuring, and behavioral experiments empower

students to confront fears, manage perfectionism, and increase

confidence in their abilities. These cognitive shifts help foster self-

awareness and self-regulation, which are crucial in combating

avoidance behaviors and enhancing academic performance. Thus, CBT

 41

is not just a therapeutic tool—it is also a useful framework for

understanding and addressing procrastination in everyday student life.

Furthermore, CBT emphasizes the concept of self-efficacy—

students’ belief in their ability to manage academic demands and

succeed. Negative beliefs, such as “I’m not smart enough” or “I’ll

never finish this on time,” can sabotage motivation and lead to task

avoidance. CBT helps challenge these self-defeating assumptions and

replace them with realistic, empowering beliefs, thereby increasing

the likelihood of timely task completion. In this way, the theory offers

a dual benefit: it addresses the underlying psychological barriers to

productivity while also promoting practical, goal-oriented behaviors

that improve academic outcomes.

This theory is especially relevant to the present study on

academic procrastination among criminology students at Naga College

Foundation, Inc. Criminology students may experience unique

cognitive and emotional stressors due to the rigorous nature of their

field. By applying the principles of CBT, this study aims to explore how

students’ thought patterns—especially those related to fear of failure

and perfectionism—influence their tendency to procrastinate. The

study seeks to determine how reshaping these patterns through CBT-

informed strategies can reduce procrastination and enhance self-

discipline. This perspective not only deepens the understanding of

psychological contributors to academic delays but also provides

 42

actionable interventions tailored to the needs of criminology students

in their specific academic and cultural environment.

Conceptual Framework

With the theories used, the researcher came up with a

conceptual framework illustrated in paradigm in Figure 2. The figure

2 showed the input, process, and output of this study.

Input. The following were the inputs of this study: (1) the

common patterns and trends of academic procrastination: students

across different academic levels and disciplines, (2), the underlying

factors contributing to a academic procrastination: task aversion,

perfectionism, fear of failure, and lack of motivation, (3) the level of

effectiveness of various self-discipline strategies in reducing academic

procrastination: goal setting, time management techniques, self-

monitoring, and behavior modification.

Process. The procedure started after the thesis title proposal

were approved by the panel of examiners. A letter; permit to conduct

study was provided by the researchers and was sent to the Naga

College Foundation, Inc., College of Criminal Justice Education

Department, Dr. Marilyn F. Balares, Dean, -

 43

PATTERNS OF ACADEMIC PROCRASTINATION

AND STRATEGIES FOR SELF-DISCIPLINE

INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT

1. The common
patterns and trends
of academic
procrastination 1. Data Gathering
among students Process
across different
academic levels and
disciplines?
-Survey
2. The underlying Questionnaires A SEMINAR ON:
factors contributing - Likert Scale
to academic -Stratified
CONQUERING
procrastination in Proportionate ACADEMIC
terms of: Random Sampling PROCRASTINAT
a. Task aversion,
b. Perfectionism
ION: PATTERNS
c. Fear of failure, and
2. Data Processing AND
d. Lack of motivation? STRATEGIES
3. The level of -Frequency and
effectiveness of Percentage
FOR SELF-
various self- -Weighted Mean DISCIPLINE
discipline strategies -Ranking and
in reducing academic Interpretation
procrastination
along:
a. Goal setting, 3. Data Analysis
b. Time management
techniques,
c. Self-monitoring, and
d. Behavior
modification

FEEDBACK

Figure 2

Conceptual Paradigm
 44

for approval for the researchers to conduct a study. Upon the approval

of the letter, survey questionnaire was formulated by the researchers

through item-pooling from the different related studies and literatures

presented in chapter two of this study and was content validated by

their adviser, and which was administered to the selected sample with

the use of stratified-proportionate random sampling of criminology

students at Naga College Foundation, Inc., enrolled in academic year

2024-2025. The questionnaires were retrieved to get the data needed

in the study. The results were treated and interpreted with appropriate

statistical tools such weighted mean and verbal interpretation, and

frequency and percentage.

Output. Based on the findings, the researchers organized a

seminar entitled “Conquering Academic Procrastination: Patterns and

Strategies for Self-Discipline.” This event aimed to address the

persistent issue of academic procrastination among criminology

students and to provide them with practical, evidence-based strategies

for enhancing self-discipline and academic performance. The seminar

was attended by criminology students from various year levels at Naga

College Foundation, Inc., who actively participated in a dynamic and

reflective learning session designed to foster awareness, motivation,

and behavioral change.

The primary objective of the seminar was to help students

recognize common patterns and underlying causes of procrastination,

 45

such as poor time management, fear of failure, perfectionism, and lack

of goal clarity. By exploring these factors, the session empowered

students to take proactive steps toward developing healthier academic

habits. Through guided discussions, interactive workshops, and

resource sharing, the seminar introduced practical techniques rooted

in goal-setting theory, cognitive-behavioral strategies, and temporal

motivation theory. These included setting specific and achievable

academic goals, breaking down large tasks into manageable steps, and

reprogramming negative thought patterns that lead to delay and

avoidance.

Feedback. The arrows from Output going to Input showed the

effect of the seminar to the common patterns and trends of academic

procrastination among students across different academic levels and

disciplines, the underlying factors contributing to an academic

procrastination and the level of effectiveness of various self-discipline

strategies in reducing academic procrastination. Meanwhile, the

broken arrow from feedback going to the process explains that if there

are errors in the output, the procedures when the study was conducted

should be reviewed.
 46

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