Metal Forming and Machining

(BMEE304L)
(3-0-0-3)
Introductory Class
Module 1 –Fundamentals of Metal Forming
 Course objectives
1. To impart knowledge on the basic principles of metal forming theories and
processes.

2. To give an insight on metal cutting theories, machine tools, and machining processes.

Course outcomes
At the end of the course, the student will be able to

1. Develop the yield criterion and workability behaviors of materials.

2. Evaluate various bulk and sheet metal forming processes for different functional
requirements.
3. Demonstrate various machine tools and machining operations.
4. Analyse the mechanics of metal cutting processes.
5. Investigate the heat flow, tool life and tool wear during metal cutting process.

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 Conduct of the Course
❖ Three hours per week including lectures, discussion, and tutorials

❑ There are homework problems, Digital Assignments, Quizzes, two Continuous

Assessment Tests and a Final assessment Test.
❑ There will be a great deal of discussion in the class.
❑ History has shown regular attendance is necessary to be successful in the class.
❑ Quizzes, if any, will be short

• Listen, practice numerical, and

prepare notes
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 Introduction to metal forming
❑ Manufacturing of desired shape through plastic deformation of metal using tools such as
Metal Forming punch, die etc.
❑ Material takes the shape of die without any loss of material (no volume change)

❑ Bulk metal forming processes

Classification (Rolling, Forging, extrusion, etc.)
❑ Sheet metal forming processes
(Stretch forming, deep drawing, bending,
shearing etc.)
Rolling Forging Bending
❑ Tension
❑ Compression
Deformation mode
❑ Bending
❑ Shearing
Applications Stretch forming Deep drawing Blanking

Courtesy: Honda India Courtesy: ISRO India Image from : [Link] Image from: [Link]
Automotive Space application Home appliances and food packaging
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 Significance of understanding material behaviour
Importance Relevant material properties
❑ Product design ❑ Mechanical properties ❑ Thermal properties
❑ Material selection (Yield strength, ductility, tensile strength, (melting temperature, thermal conductivity,
❑ Failure prediction strain hardening, etc.) coefficient of thermal expansion, etc.)
❑ Tooling design ❑ Microstructural properties
❑ Process optimization (Phases, texture, grain size, inclusions,
etc.)
Deformation mechanisms
Yield strength < Stresses induced during the process < Fracture strength

Factors
❖ Crystal
structure
❖ Temperature
❖ Stress state
Auto/Steel-Partnership, 2001 ❖ Strain rate, etc.
Advantages
Byjus
❖ Right material at right place Chidambram et al., 2006
❖ Light weight Elastic and plastic deformation Slip Twining
❖ Low cost and less scrap
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 Stress-strain behaviour: Flow curve and strain hardening
P 𝑑𝜎
= 𝜎 ⇒ 𝜀𝑢 = 𝑛
𝜎=𝐾 𝜀 𝑛 𝑑𝜀

True. (σ-𝜀)

Engg. (s-e)

𝑙0

Tensile specimen Tensile curves of different materials

Schematic of tensile curve

𝑙 − 𝑙0
𝐸𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑒 = 𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝜀 = ln
𝑙
=ln(1 + 𝑒) Instability in tension
𝑙0 𝑙0
𝑃 Nonuniform deformation
𝐸𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑠 =
𝐴0 𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜎 =
𝑃
=𝑠(1 + 𝑒) • Also, in many cases, 𝜺𝒖 = 𝒏
𝐴𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑜𝑢𝑠

Where, 𝑙0 = initial gauge length

𝑙= final length
𝐴0 = Initial area
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 Assumptions of Plasticity Theory

The following assumptions are usually made:

(1) the response is independent of rate effects
(2) the material is incompressible in the plastic range
(3) there is no Bauschinger effect
(4) the yield stress is independent of hydrostatic pressure
(5) the material is isotropic

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 Concept of stress

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 ∆𝑃
Stress (𝜎) = lim
∆𝐴→0 ∆𝐴

𝑃
𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 (𝜎)= 𝐴 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃 (Normal to the plane)
𝑃
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 (𝜏)= 𝐴 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 (Along OC Direction)

In the plane
𝑃
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 (𝜏)= 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 × 𝐶𝑜𝑠∅ (Along Y Direction)
𝐴

𝑃
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 (𝜏)= (𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 × 𝑆𝑖𝑛 ∅) (Along X Direction)
𝐴

In general, a given plane may have one normal stress and two shear stresses acting on it.

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 State of stress
A state of stress in tensor notation is expressed as

Two subscripts are needed for describing shearing stresses

The first subscript indicates the plane in which the stress
acts and the second the direction in which the stress acts.

Since a plane is most easily defined by its normal, the first

subscript refers to this normal.
For example, 𝝉𝒚𝒛 is the shear stress on the plane perpendicular
to the y axis in the direction of z axis

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 State of Stress in Two Dimensions (Plane Stress)

After applying static equilibrium

Normal stress acting on the oblique plane

State of plane stress: (a) referenced to {xyz}, (b) referencedto

{x′y′z′}.

The shearing stress on the oblique plane is given by

Stress on oblique plane, two

dimensions.
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 Concept of Mohr’s Circle

Equation of a circle

Shear stress causing a clockwise rotation about any point in the

physical element – Plot above the horizontal axis

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 Concept of principal plane and principal stresses
❑no shearing stress is exerted on the principal planes
2 xy
tan 2 =
x − y
2
x + y    x − y 
 + ( xy )
2
1 =  +  Max. Principal stress
 2   2 
2
 +y   x − y 
 ( xy ) Min. Principal stress
2
2 =  x  −  +  Principal stresses
 2   2 
❑Maximum shearing stress

(𝜎1 − 𝜎2 ) 𝜎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦 2
2
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = + 𝜏𝑥𝑦
2 2

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Maximum shearing stress 17
 Concept of yield criterion
A yield criterion is a hypothesis defining the limit of elasticity in a material and the onset of plastic
deformation under any possible combination of stresses.

The yield stress σY (or σ0) is usually determined in a tensile test, where a single uniaxial stress acts.

However, the engineer must be able to predict when yield will occur in more complicated real-life
situations involving multiaxial stresses.

This is done by use of a yield criterion, an observation derived from experimental evidence as to just
what it is about the stress state that causes yield.

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Maximum Shear Stress theory (MSS) ( Tresca’s theory)

▪ The theory states that the yielding will occur when the maximum shear stress at any
point in the component becomes equal to the maximum shear stress in the standard
specimen of the tension test, when yielding starts.

1
 max = (From Mohr circle)
2
S yt (Specimen starts yielding)
 max =
2

S ys = 0.5S yt  max =
S yt
2
Fig.: (a) Stresses in Simple Tension Test
(b) Mohr’s Circle for Stresses

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Tresca’s theory: yield locus
Shear stress maximum
 1 −  2 2 −3  3 −  1  S yt
Max  max 12 = ...or .. max 23 = ...or... max 31 = =
 2 2 2  2( n)

 1 −  2 =  S yt
 2 −  3 =  S yt
 3 −  1 =  S yt

For biaxial stress, 3 = 0

 1 −  2 =  S yt
Fig. : Boundary for Maximum Shear Stress
Theory under Bi-axial Stresses  2 =  S yt
 1 =  S yt

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von Mises’s yield criteria or distortion energy theory

▪ The theory states that the yielding occurs when the strain energy of distortion per unit
volume at any point in the component, becomes equal to the strain energy of distortion
per unit volume in the standard specimen of tension-test, when yielding starts.

2S yt 2 = ( 1 −  2 ) + ( 2 −  3 ) + ( 3 −  1 )
2 2 2

S yt 2 =  12 +  2 2 +  32 −  1 2 −  2 3 −  3 1

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Distortion energy theory (von Mises’s theory) cont.

The total strain energy U of the cube is given by,

1 1 1
U =  11 +  2 2 +  3 3 − − − − − (1)
2 2 2

1 
1 =  1 −  ( 2 +  3 )  
E
Fig. 4: Element with Tri-axial Stresses (b) Stress Components due to 
1 
Distortion of Element (c) Stress Components due to Change of Volume
 2 =  2 −  ( 3 +  1 )   − − − − − − − −(2)
E 
1 
 3 =  3 −  ( 2 +  1 )  
E 
1
U=  12 +  2 2 +  32 − 2 ( 1 2 +  2 3 +  3 1 ) 
2E
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Distortion energy theory (von Mises’s theory) cont.

The total strain energy U is resolved into two components

U = U v + U d − − − − − − − (3)
 1 =  1d +  v 

 2 =  2 d +  v  − − − − − −(4)
 3 =  3d +  v 

Since the components  1d ,  2d and  3d do not change the volume of the cube

1d +  2 d +  3d = 0 − − − − − (5) 1d =

1 
 1d −  ( 2 d +  3d )  
E

1 
also  2d =  2 d −  ( 3d +  1d )   − − − − − − − −(6)
E 
1 
 3d =  3d −  ( 2 d +  1d )  
E 
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Distortion energy theory (von Mises’s theory) cont.
Substituting Eq. (6) in Eq. (5),

(1 − 2 )( 1d +  2 d +  3d ) = 0 − − − − − − − (7)
As, 1 − 2   0 so,  1d +  2 d +  3d = 0 − − − − − (8)

Now by putting Eq. (8) in Eq. (4)

1
 v = ( 1 +  2 +  3 ) − − − − − − − (9)
3
The strain energy Uv corresponding to the change of volume for the cube is given by,

  
U v = 3  v v  − − − − − − − − − (10)
 2 
1
Also v =  v −  ( v +  v ) 
E
(1 − 2  ) v
v = − − − − − − − − − (11)
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Distortion energy theory (von Mises’s theory) cont.

From expressions (10) and (11),

3(1 − 2 ) v 2
U v= − − − − − − − − − (12)
2E

Substituting expression (9) in the Eq. (12),

(1 − 2 )( 1 +  2 +  3 )2
Uv = − − − −(13)
6E

Again, U = U d + U v

So, Ud = U −Uv

1 (1 − 2 )( 1 +  2 +  3 ) 2
Ud =  1 +  2 +  3 − 2 ( 1 2 +  2 3 +  3 1 )  −
2 2 2
− − − − − − − (14)
2E 6E
 1+   
 ( 1 −  2 ) + ( 2 −  3 ) + ( 3 −  1 )  − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − (15)
2 2 2
Ud = 
 6E 
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Distortion energy theory (von Mises’s theory) cont.

In simple tension test, when the specimen starts yielding,  1 = S yt and 2 = 3 = 0

 1+  
Therefore, Ud =   2S yt − − − − − − − − − − − − − − − −(16)
2

 6E 

From Equation (15) and (16), the criteria for failure for the distortion energy theory written as

2 S yt = ( 1 −  2 ) + ( 2 −  3 ) + ( 3 −  1 )
2 2 2 2

S yt 2 =  12 +  2 2 +  32 −  1 2 −  2 3 −  3 1

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Distortion energy theory (von Mises’s theory) cont.
S yt 2 =  12 +  2 2 +  32 −  1 2 −  2 3 −  3 1

For plane stress condition (𝜎3 = 0),

Fig. : Boundary for Distortion Energy Theory

under bi-axial Stresses

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Distortion energy theory (von Mises’s theory) cont.

From the figure, 𝜎1 = -𝜎2 = 𝜏𝑥𝑦 and 𝜎3 = 0

S yt 2 =  12 +  2 2 +  32 −  1 2 −  2 3 −  3 1

S yt = 3 xy

S sy
S sy = = 0.577 S yt
3
Fig. : Element subjected to Pure Shear Stresses
(b) Mohr’s Circle for Shear Stresses

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 Octahedral shear stress and shear strain

The magnitudes of the normal and shear stresses

acting on the octahedral plane are called
the octahedral normal stress σoct and the
octahedral shear stress τoct .

Stresses acting on a material

element
The octahedral plane

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 Octahedral shear stress and shear strain (contd.)

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 Principal scalar invariants of the stress tensor

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 Hydrostatic and deviatoric stresses

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 Deviatoric invariants

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Numerical Examples
Problem
 Problem

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 Effect of strain rate on flow properties

Strain rate in terms of conventional linear strain Engineering stress vs

engineering strain at
various strain rates for
Fe50Mn30Co10Cr10 alloy

He, Z. F., et al. "The effect of strain rate

True strain rate on mechanical properties and
microstructure of a metastable
FeMnCoCr high entropy alloy." Materials
Science and Engineering: A 776 (2020):
138982.

True strain rate related to conventional strain rate by following equation

Strain rate sensitivity index

Effect of strain rate of tensile

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 Effect of temperature on flow properties

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 Determination of flow stress

The requirement of a theory describing the mechanics of a metalworking process is the

ability to make an accurate prediction of the stresses, strains, and velocities at every point in
the deformed region of the workpiece

In general, such a theory consists of three sets of equations:

1. The static equilibrium of force equations

2. The Levy-Mises equations expressing a relationship between stress and strain rate
3. The yield criterion

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 The Levy-Mises equations

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 The Levy-Mises equations (contd.)

Where,

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 Determination of flow stress/ load
The different methods of analysis, in increasing order of complexity and ability
to predict fine detail, are:
1. The slab method-assumes homogeneous deformation
2. Uniform-deformation energy method-calculates average forming stress
from the work of plastic deformation
3. Slip-line field theory-permits point-by-point calculation of stress for plane
strain conditions only
4. Upper- and lower-bound solutions- based on the theory of limit analysis,
uses reasonable stress and velocity fields to calculate the bounds within which the
actual forming load must lie
5. Finite element methods-a technique called the matrix method allows large
increments of deformation for rigid plastic materials, with considerable reduction in
computational time

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 Stresses acting on an element during strip drawing
of a wide sheet (slab analysis)

Slip-line field for strip drawing through a

frictionless wedge-shaped die at a small reduction.
(After Hill and Tupper.)

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 An upper-bound solution or strip drawing.

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 Deformation-zone geometery
In metal forming, deformation zone geometry refers to the shape, size, and characteristics of the region
within the workpiece where plastic deformation occurs as it passes through the forming tool (like rolls,
dies, or extrusion chambers). Understanding this geometry is critical because it directly affects forming
loads, material flow, strain distribution, defects, and final product quality.

Converging channels for different deformation processes showing calculation of A (a) parallel indenters (plane-
strain compression); (b) drawing or extrusion of strip or wire; (c) tube drawing over a mandrel; (d) rolling.

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 Thank you.

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