FVE 203

Research?

Presented by:
Vanny D. Cornelio, Ph.D
•The process of schooling can no longer afford the
reproduction of critical illiteracy and incompetence

•Changes are occurring at an unprecedented rate

and the traditional priorities of education will no
longer suffice

•Teachers often leave a mark on their students, but

they seldom make a mark on their profession

•The relationship of pedagogy to research is one of

the most neglected areas in educational practice

•Research is the only reliable source of knowledge

to gain competitive advantage
Research is a systematic, objective and
comprehensive investigation of
certain phenomenon which involves
accurate gathering, recording, and
critical analyzing and interpreting of
all facts about the phenomenon.
 DIMENSIONS OF RESEARCH
•Conceptual Dimension: “Why we do research”
Research is a process that attempts to seek
solutions or answers to problems
•Substantive Dimension: “What determines
the contents of research”
Research is a process of applying the scientific
method
•Operational Dimension: “How we arrive at
answers or solutions ”
Research is a process of testing hypotheses or
verifying theories
RESEARCH AS A SCIENTIFIC PROCESS

PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION

HYPOTHESIS FORMULATION

EXPERIMENTATION

CONCLUSION
 RESEARCH AS A “BRIDGE” OF THE KNOWLEDGE
GAP

THEORETICAL POLE THE RESEARCH EMPIRICAL POLE

OF KNOWLEDGE PROCESS OF KNOWLEDGE
(WHAT WE THINK IS) (WHAT IS)

RESEARCH OPERATIONAL
HYPOTHESIS HYPOTHESIS

•CONCEPTS RESEARCH DESIGN REALITY

SAMPLING PLAN •PHYSICAL
MEASUREMENT •PSYCHOLOGICAL
•CONSTRUCTS
DATA ANALYSIS •SOCIAL

•PROPOSITIONS

ANALYZED DATA COLLECTED DATA

 RESEARCH AS THEORY-DRIVEN INQUIRY

THEORY

RESEARCH PROCESS

EMPIRICAL
THEORETICAL
POLE
POLE
FRAMING THE
RESEARCH
CONCEPT
 PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION

CHOICE OF METHOD POPULATION

CONCEPTUALIZATION
Non-experimental AND
•Specify meaning of
• Descriptive
variables SAMPLE
• Exploratory
• Explanatory
• Evaluative
OPERATIONALIZATION • Historical
•Specify measures of Experimental
variables

DATA MINING

DATA PROCESSING

ANALYSIS
LITERATURE REVIEW
 Essentially, literature review precedes the application of the different
protocols employed in research. It is both an activity and a product.

 If one doesn’t have a problem in mind, a review of literature and

studies done in the field can be of great help

 If one has a problem in mind, a literature review will help the

researcher conceptualize and operationalize the problem
The Review of Related Literature in Relation to the
Research Process

L PROBLEM
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HYPOTHESIS
R
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DESIGN
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R QUANTIFICATION
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 Goals of Literature Review
•To demonstrate a familiarity with a body
of knowledge and establish credibility.
•To show the path of prior research and
how a current project is linked to it.
•To integrate and summarize what is known
in an area.
•To learn from others and stimulate
new ideas.
 Six Types of Reviews
•Self-study reviews increase the reader’s
confidence.
•Context reviews place a specific project in the
big picture.
•Historical reviews trace the development of
an issue overtime.
•Theoretical reviews compare how different
theories address an issue.
•Methodological reviews point out how
methodology varies by study.
•Integrative reviews summarize what is
known at a point in time.
Identifying Research Problems
Sources of Research
Problems
 Personal experience
 Literature source
 Existing theories
 Previous research
 Researchers are not blind to ideas. In fact, we are so rich with
these. The researcher, therefore, can leverage his pool of ideas to
come up with a good research problem. If you have an idea, test it in
terms of its:

a) novelty: is it new or original?

b) relevance: is it worthwhile? timely?
c) responsiveness: does it address a significant need?
d) significance: does it give specific benefits?
does it contribute to the existing pool of
knowledge?
f) ethical worth: does it promote the good? Will it make
a difference in the life of others?
g) “smartness” (specific, measurable, attainable,
resource bound or realistic, time bound)

Most of all, consider the level of interest that it will generate among
members of your peers and to you. Your topic should be interesting
enough to energize you to pursue it
 Example:
 Research Idea: School administrators lead differently. Can this
be due to their orientation towards work and people?
 Research Problem: Can the orientation of school
administrators towards work and people affect the way they
lead?
 General Problem: What is the relationship of the behavioral
orientation of school administrators on their leadership styles?
Problem Statement Criteria
 Interrogative sentence
form
 Includes the population
 Includes the variables
 Empirically testable
 Theoretical Framework

 The theoretical framework provides legitimacy to

the study as it gives a theoretically account of the
reality of the phenomenon being investigated and
the interrelationship of different variables that
shape such phenomenon.
 It also provides a basis for the choice of variables,
methods, and measures.
 In the absence of formal or academic theories,
concepts can be used, in which case, a
conceptual framework is adopted
Theory Terminology

Theory: a set of related statements

that describes or explains
phenomena in a systematic way
Composed of concepts and the
interrelationship between concepts
Relationship between concepts are
also known as propositions
 Concept: a word-picture or mental idea of a phenomenon
 Construct: a phenomenon that cannot be directly observed but
must be inferred by concrete indicators of the phenomenon
 Proposition: an assertion between the relationship of concepts or
variables
 Hypothesis: the researcher’s expectations of the outcome of the
study
 Model: structural, pictorial, diagrammatic, or mathematical
representation of reality
 Conceptual Model: made up of concepts and propositions that
state the relationship between the concepts
Research Variables
Variable: A characteristic that changes
Dependent
Independent
Moderator
Intervening
Control
 RESEARCH PARADIGMS

Causal Paradigm

Independent Dependent Expected

Variable Variable Outcome

Moderator
Variable
 Input-Process-Output Model

Inputs Outputs
•Operands Process •Productivity
• Operators •Affectivity

Feedback
Operational Paradigm

Assess

Design

Implement

Evaluate
From General Problem to
Specific Problems

 The underlying assumption is that the

whole is equal to the sum of its parts. The
general problem is the whole and the
specific problems comprise its parts.
 The nature of the whole will dictate the
nature of the parts.
 This implies that when all of the specific
problems are answered, then the general
problem can be answered.
 Going back to out example:
 General Problem: This study attempts to find
out the relationship of the behavioral
orientation of school administrators toward
people and task on their leadership styles
 There are three things you need to know first
in order to address the general problem:

 First,you need to know the behavioral orientation of

administrators
 Second, you need to know the leadership styles of the
school administrators
 Third, you need to know the relationship of the first to
the second
 From the above, start formulating the specific questions
 Therefore, your specific problems can be stated as:
1. To what extent are school administrators
behaviorally oriented to:
a. people
b. tasks
2. To what extent do school administrators practice
the following leadership styles:
a. directing
b. supporting
c. coaching
d. delegating
3. What is the a correlation between the behavioral
orientation and leadership styles of school
administrators?
 Reflecting on the problems will generate more
questions. You have to entertain these in order
to complete the parts of the whole.
 For instance, will you be expecting that all of the
hospital administrators will have the same
behavioral orientation and leadership styles?
 Of course not! The literature review and your
theoretical framework will identify the factors that
can cause a difference. This is the time for you
to consider what moderator variables you will
use. Once you have chosen the variables, factor
these into the specific problems
 The complete statement of specific problems will now
read as:

1. To what extent are school administrators behaviorally oriented to:

a. people
b. tasks
2. Does the behavioral orientation of school administrators vary significantly with their:
a. gender
b. age
c. educational attainment
d. years of experience
[Link] what extent do hospital administrators practice the following leadership styles:
a. directing
b. supporting
c. coaching
d. delegating
4. Do the leadership styles of school administrators vary significantly with their:
a. gender
b. age
c. educational attainment
d. years of experience
5. What is the a correlation between the behavioral orientation and leadership styles of
school administrators?
 Reminders:
In critical interrogation, “think within the box,” the general problem
already contains the logic of interrogation. Do not ask unnecessary
problems that are not contained within the general problem. In short,
the general problem contains its own logic that drives the flow of the
specific problems
 Hypothesis Formulation
◼AFTER THE SPECIFIC PROBLEMS
HAVE BEEN FORMULATED, THE NEXT
TASK IS TO FORMULATE THE
RESEARCH HYPOTHESES. THESE
SERVE AS THE TEMPORARY ANSWERS
TO THE SPECIFIC PROBLEMS.
◼THE RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS IS
STATED IN A POSITIVE MANNER IN
CONTRAST TO THE NULL HYPOTHESIS.
 Research Hypotheses may also be
classified as directional or non-
directional
Directional: predicts the type of
relationship that exists
Non-directional: does not predict
the direction of the effect or
relationship between variables.
Operationalization
 After stating the hypotheses, the next consideration would be to
consider the measurement of variables and methodology to use.

 At this point, instrumentation must have to be taken into

consideration. What are measurable are the indicators of the
phenomenon being investigated
Measurement

Measurement is the assignment of

numbers to things.

The measures are what are actually

used in testing the hypotheses.
Types of Measures
 The nominal level of measurement
describes variables that are categorical in
nature.
 The ordinal level of measurement
describes variables that can be ordered or
ranked in some order of importance.
 The interval level of measurement
describes variables that have more or
less equal intervals, or meaningful
distances between their ranks.
 The ratio level of measurement describes
variables that have equal intervals and a
fixed zero (or reference) point.
Research Designs
Research Designs
 Non-Experimental
 Survey studies
 Correlational studies
 Comparative studies
 Retrospective
 Prospective
 Methodological
 Secondary analysis
 Experimental
 Pseudo Experiment
 True Experiment
 Quasi-Experimental
Populations and Samples
Population: complete set of
persons or objects
Sample: representative
sub-set of the population
Element: a single member
of the population
Sampling frame: a listing of
all the elements
Types of Sampling Methods

Probability sampling: involves the

use of random selection process
to select a sample from elements
of a population
Simple random sampling
Stratified sampling
Cluster random sampling
Systematic random sampling
 Non-probabilitysampling methods: sample
elements are chosen by non-random
methods
Convenience sampling or
accidental/incidental sampling
Snowball sampling or network
sampling
Quota sampling
Purposive sampling or judgemental
sampling
Data Collection
Techniques
Using available information


 Observing
 Interviewing (face-to-face)
 Administering written questionnaires
 Focus group discussions
 Projective techniques, mapping, scaling
 RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY

 Reliability means that the instrument consistently

measures the same thing and the findings would
be consistently the same if the study were done
over again.

 Validity refers to the truthfulness of findings

because the instrument measures what it is
supposed to measure
Data Analysis
 Quantitative Data
PRESENTATION •DESCRIPTION

•DESCRIPTIVE
•MEANINGS
•STATISTICAL
•IMPLICATIONS QUANTITATIVE
DATA

INTERPRETATION ANALYSIS
 Presentation is the narrative description of summarized
data
 Analysis on the other hand involves the decomposition
and synthesis of data with the end view of accounting for
trends, patterns, or differentials observed (descriptive
analysis) or to account for the behavior of variables on
the basis of computed statistical indices (statistical
analysis)
 Interpretation involves giving meaning to analyzed data
by cross referencing your analysis with corroborative
evidences. This is where the review of related literature
becomes interwoven into the texture of the research
report.
Data = facts and figures
Information = data + context
Knowledge = information + meaning
 Analytic Tools
 A. Descriptive Statistics: used to examine the characteristics,
behaviors, and experiences of the subjects
 Measures to condense data
 Measures of central tendencies
 Measures of variability
 Measures of relationships
 Measures to condense data are statistics used to summarize
 Frequency distribution
 Graphic presentations
 Percentages
 Measures of central tendency are used to describe the average,
typical, or most common value
 Mode
 Median
 Mean
 Measures of variability describes how spread out the values are in a
distribution
 Range
 Percentile
 Standard Deviation
 Variance
Measures of relationship are concerned with the correlations between
variables
 B. Inferential statistics is used to test a hypothesis
 Parametric
 Non-Parametric