Classifications of various materials and features

Table 1: Suggested classification of rockmass strength (from Palmström, 1995)

CHARACTERIZATION Rockmass compr. strength
(approx.. RMi value)
Term related to rock mass strength Term for RMi (MPa)

Extremely weak Extremely low < 0.001

Very weak Very low 0.001 - 0.01
Weak Low 0.01 - 0.1
Moderately strong Moderately high 0.1 - 1
Strong High 1 - 10
Very strong Very high 10 - 100
Extremely strong Extremely high > 100

Table 2: Main types of coating and filling materials in joints and seams
FILLING MATERIALS IN JOINTS PROPERTIES
Calcite May dissolve, particularly when being porous or flaky.
Gypsum May dissolve.
FRICTIONAL
Epidote, quartz May cause healing or welding of the joint.
MATERIALS
Zeolite May slake.
Sandy or silty materials Cohesionless, friction materials.
Chlorite, talc, graphite Very low friction materials, in particular when wet.
COHESIVE
Inactive clay materials Weak, cohesion materials with low friction properties.
MATERIALS
Swelling clay Exhibits a very low friction and loss of strength together with high swelling pressure.

Rock spalling/slabbing and rock burst

(from W.D. Ortlepp Rockbursts in tunnels / Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 16 (2001) 41 -48)
The term 'rockburst' is widely used throughout the mining world and is well known to tunnellers in
some countries particularly in Scandinavia. Unfortunately, it also has some wide range of meanings
and there does not appear to be a broadly recognised definition of the term.
Definition (from South African hard rock mining): a rockburst is a ' seismic event' which causes
violent and significant damage to a tunnel or the excavations of a mine. 'Seismic event' is
understood to be an incident resulting from some failure or slip in the rockmass, which causes
significant vibrations to radiate outward from the source to be felt as a distinct shock or severe
tremor.

Table 3: Simplified classification of seismic event types (from Ortlepp, 2001)

First motion from Richter
Seismic event Postulated source mechanism seismic records magnitude ML
Superficial spalling with violent Usually undetected,
Strain-burst ejection of fragments could be implosive -0.2 - 0
Outward expulsion of large slabs pre-
Buckling existing parallel to surface of opening Implosive 0 - 1.5
Face crush/ Violent expulsion of rock from stope Mostly implosive,
pillar burst face or pillar sides complex 1 - 2.5
Violent propagation of shear fracture
Shear rupture through intact rock mass Double-couple shear 2.0 - 3.5
Sudden, renewed movement on
Fault-slip existing fault or dyke contact Double-couple shear 2.5 - 5.0
Russenes (1974) has shown the relations between rock burst activity, tangential stress on in the
tunnel surface and the point load strength of the rock (Figure 1).
POINT LOAD STRENGTH, Iσ (MPa)

12

ity
tiv
ac
t
rσ
bu
ck

w
ro

8 Lo te
ra
o
N

e
od
M
ivit
y Figure 1:
ac t
rσ t The level of rock burst
k bu
4
h roc related to point load
Hig strength of the rock and the
tangential stress (σt = σθ) in
the tunnel surface calculated
from Kirsch's equations
20 40 60 80 100 (from Russenes, 1974).
TANGENTIAL STRESS, σt (MPa)

Table 4: Classification of slabbing and rock burst

σc /σθ RMi / σθ Stress mode (in massive rock)
>4 2 Stable
4-2 2-1 Low rock slabbing/spalling activity
2-1 1 – 0.5 Moderate slabbing after few hour
<1 < 0.5 High rock bursting activity (within few minutes)
In massive rock, RMi ≈ 0.5σc
σθ = tangential stress; σc = uniaxial strength; RMi = rock mass index

Swelling minerals
Table 5: Classification of free swell and of swelling pressure as suggested by NBG, 1985
Classification
Parameter Comment
low or small moderate high very high
Free swell < 100% 100 – 140% 140 – 200% > 200% Measured on dry powder < 20 µm
Swelling pressure < 0.1 MPa 0.1 – 0.3 MPa 0.3 – 0.75 MPa > 0.75 MPa With 0.2 MPa pre-consolidation

Karstification
Suggested classification of the karstification (chemical solution of rock from water) of limestone and
marble in underground excavations:
none no visible signs of karst development along joints or fissures;
very small mm sized opening(s) along fissures or joints from initial karst activity;
small channels of cm size have been developed;
moderate openings of dm thickness;
strong to very strong development of large caves in the metre range.
Water inflow to underground excavations
Suggested classification of the inflow of water into underground excavations:
seepage inflow volumes < dm³/day;
dripping inflow volumes of dm³/day to m³/hour;
flowing inflow volumes of m³/hour to several m³/min;
water in-burst inflow volumes of several m³/s.

Orientation of joints related to the axis of the tunnel or cavern

Table 6: Classification of the effect of joints, according to Bieniawski, 1984

Strike perpendicular to tunnel axis
Drive with dip Drive against dip
o o o o o o o o
Dip 45 – 90 Dip 20 – 45 Dip 45 – 90 Dip 20 – 45
Very favourable Favourable Fair Unfavourable

Strike parallel to tunnel axis Irrespective of strike

o o o o o o
Dip 20 – 45 Dip 45 – 90 Dip 0 – 20
Fair Very unfavourable Fair

Table 7: Classification of the effect of joints in roof and walls, as suggested by Palmström, 2014

In one WALL In opposite WALL In ROOF

TERM
o o o o o
strike ( ) dip ( ) strike ( ) dip ( ) strike dip ( )
Very favourable > 70 all > 70 all > 60
Favourable < 20 < 20 45 - 60
< 20 < 20
all strikes
20 - 45 ≤60
Fair 30 - 45
< 45 20 - 70 all
20 - 70
Unfavourable < 20 > 60 15 - 30
45 - 90
Very unfavourable < 20 - - < 15

References
Russenes B.F. (1974): Analysis of rock spalling for tunnels in steep valley sides (in Norwegian). [Link].
thesis, Norwegian Institute of Technology, Dept. of Geology, 247 p.

NBG - Norwegian group of rock mechanics (1985): Handbook in engineering geology - rock. (in
Norwegian). Norwegian rock mechanics group (NBG). Tapir, 140 p.

Ortlepp W.D. (2001): The behavior of tunnels at great depth under large static and dynamic
pressures. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology, 16(1), pp. 41– 48.

Palmström A., 2014, in the spreadsheet 'Geo-calculations'.