NERVOUS SYSTEM

[Link] is coordination?
Ans:The interaction of these activites of a living being as per the needs of the body internally or
externally is called Coordination.

Two types of coordination -1) Nervous coordination

2) Chemical coordination

Nervous coordination : This coordination is brought about by the nervous [Link] is made up of
the brain , spinal cord, nerves and sense organs.

Chemical coordination: This coordination is brought about through chemical messengers called
hormones.

Function of Nervous system:

[Link] us informed.

2. Enables us to remember, to think and to reason out.

3. Controls and harmonises all voluntary muscular activities. E.g Running, holding books etc

4. Regulates involuntary activities such as breathing, beating of the heart etc

What is Neuron?
The unit of the nervous system…

Definition of Neuron
The structural and functional unit of nervous system , that connects every parts of the body by
spreading its thin fibre is called Neuron..

Structure of Neuron-
The three main parts of a neuron are the cell body, Dendrites and axon

The cell body-

1. It contains a well defined nucleus, surrounded by granular cytoplasm
2. It has all the cell organelles like other cells, only centrosome is absent because nerve cells
have lost the ability to divide.

Dendrites: These are branched cytoplasmic projections of the cell body. They conduct nerve
impulses to the cyton.

Axon:
1. It is a long process from the cell body.

2. It varies in size from a few millimetres to even more than one metre on length.
 3. In most neurons, the axon is surrounded by a white insulating sheath known as myelin or
medullary sheath which is covered by an outermost thin sheath called neurilemma.

4. The myelin sheath shows gaps through out the length, which are called Nodes of Ranvier.

5. Axon terminals are closely placed near the dendrites of another one or more neurons but
are not connected . Such gaps in between are called Synaptic Clefts

Types of Neurons
1. Sensory neurons
2. Motor neurons
3. Association neurons

[Link] neuron: Convey the impulse from the receptor(sense organ) to the main nervous
system (the brain or spinal cord)

[Link] neurons: Carry the impulse from the main nervous system to an effector(muscle or
gland)

[Link] neurons: are located in the brain and spinal cord, which interconnect the sensory
and motor neurons.
Synapse
Synapse is the point of contact between the terminal branches of the axon of a neuron with the
dendrites of another neuron separated by a fine gap.

Here, the nerve impulse jumps into the next neuron . This is a chemical process. As the impulse
reaches the terminal end of an axon, a chemical acetylcholine is [Link] chemical sets a new
impulse in the dendrites of the adjacent (next) neuron. The chemical is soon broken down by an
enzyme to make the synapse ready for the next transmission.
Synaptic cleft: At a chemical synapse, the membranes of the pre and post synaptic neurons are

separated by a fluid filled space called synaptic cleft.

Nerves: Nerve is a bundle of nerve fibres (axons) of separate neurons, enclosed in a

tubular sheath.
Three kinds of nerves are as follows

Sensory nerves: Contain only sensory fibres bringing impulses from the receptors(sense
organs) to the brain or spinal cord.

Ex-Optic nerve arising from the eye and ending in the brain.

Motor nerves: Contain only motor fibres carrying impulses from the brain or spinal cord to
effector organs( muscles or glands) to bring them into action.

Ex-A nerve arising from the brain and supplying the muscles of the eye ball for rotating the
eye.

Mixed nerves: are those, that contain both sensory and motor fibres.

Ex-A spinal nerve.

Major divisions of the nervous system

[Link]- Central nervous system

[Link]- Peripheral nervous system

1. CNS- includes the brain and the spinal cord contained within the vertebral
column.
2. PNS- includes the nerves that emerge from and enter into the brain and
spinal cord.

PNS consists of two subdivision

[Link] nervous system-Conveys information to skeletal( voluntary) muscles.

[Link] nervous system-includes a pair of chains of ganglia( aggregates of the

nerve cells( cell bodies) from which the nerve fibres may arise or enter into) and
nerves which control the involuntary actions of many internal organs( heart
muscles and glands).
[Link] nervous system This consists of two sets of nerves
• Cranial nerves- Cranial nerves arise from the brain. There are 12 pairs of
cranial nerves
First- Olfactory nerves to the nose for smelling
Second- Optic nerves to the eyes for vision
Seventh- Facial nerves to the tongue for taste and to the muscles of the face
Eighth- Auditory nerves to the ears for hearing.

• Spinal nerves- Spinal nerves arise from the spinal cord. There are 31 pairs of
spinal nerve which are divided into five categories

a. Cervical spinal nerve-8 pairs ( Neck region)

b. Thorasic spinal nerve- 12 pairs ( Thorax)
c. Lumbar spinal nerve -5 pairs
d. Sacral spinal nerve -5 pairs
e. Coccygeal nerve- 1 pair

A typical spinal nerve is mixed nerve. Each pair of nerves consists of a sensory
nerve, that carries message from sensory organs such as skin to brain or spinal
[Link] reverse, there is a motor nerve that brings orders from the brain or spinal
cord to effector organs. It involves both, voluntary and involuntary both.

[Link] nervous system -This system controls involuntary activities of various

organs. It is divided into two parts

a. Sympathetic nervous system (Nerves between neck and waist )(Stimulatory)

Sympathetic system arise from the spinal cord between neck and waist
region.

b. Parasympathetic nervous system ( Nerves above neck and below sacrum)

(Calming)
Parasympathetic system is located at two places. One anteriorly in the head
and neck and the other posteriorly in sacral region.
These two parts are in general, opposite to each other in action

The sympathetic nervous system is stimulated by the hormone adrenaline secreted

by the adrenal gland, located on kidneys.
The brain The brain is a very delicate organ well protected inside the brain
box or cranium of the skull.

Coverings( Meninges) The brain is protected by 3 membranous coverings

called meninges( membrane) which continue backwards on the spinal cord.
• Dura mater(outermost tough membrane)
• Arachnoid ( Thin delicate middle layer)
• Pia mater ( The innermost highly vascular membrane, richly supplied
with blood)
The space between the covering membranes is filled with a watery fluid -
Cerebrospinal fluid.. which acts like cushion to protect the brain from shocks.

The same fluid also fills the central spaces of the brain and the central canal
of the spinal cord.

Parts of the brain

The brain has three main parts visible externally

1. Cerebrum
2. Cerebellum
3. Medulla oblongata
 Cerebrum
• The cerebrum is the largest portion of the [Link] is divided into
two halves(right and left) called Cerebral hemispheres. Their
outer surface is highly convoluted with ridges and grooves.
• Each cerebral hemisphere is hollow internally and the walls have
two regions- An outer (cortex) and an inner portion ( medulla)
• The outer portion ( cortex) of the cerebrum contains cell bodies
of the neurons and being grayish in colour is called gray matter.
• It is believed that higher number of convolutions in the human
brain due to the larger number of brain( nerve) cells and hence
greater intelligence.
• The inner portion of the cerebrum consists of white matter which
mainly contains the axons ( nerve fibres) of the neurons.

Function:
• The highly developed cortex (gray matter) enables us to think, reason
out, invent, plan and memorise.
• The cerebrum is the seat of intelligence, consciousness and will power.
• It controls all voluntary actions.

Cerebellum
• The cerebellum is a much smaller area of the brain located just at the
base and under the large cerebrum.
• It has no convolutions, but has numerous furrows.

Function:
• The main function of the cerebellum is to maintain balance of the
body.
• Co ordinate muscular activity.
• For example if you stand up and walk, the impulse for this activity
arises in the cerebrum( conscious part)

Medulla Oblongata
• The medulla oblongata is the lowest portion of the brain located
at the base of the skull.
• It is roughly is continued behind as the spinal cord.

Function:
• Control the activities of the internal organs.
For example peristaltic movement (muscle contractions that move food through the
digestive tract ). of the alimentary canal, movement of breathing , beating of
the heart and other involuntary actions.
• Injury to the medulla generally results in death.

Three primary regions of the brain

1. Forebrain( Cerebrum, thalamus and hypothalamus)
2. Midbrain (A small tubular part ( reflexes involving eyes and ears)
3. Hindbrain( Cerebellum , pons ans medulla oblongata)

Brain stem
Midbrain, pons and medulla oblongata form the brain [Link] is present
between cerebrum and spinal cord. Brain stem centres produce the program
automatic behaviours necessary for [Link] is associated with ten pairs of
cranial nerves.

The spinal cord

The spinal cord extends from the medulla of the brain down almost the
whole length of the backbone to end at the second lumbar vertebra and lies
with in the neural canal of the [Link] the arrangement of white or
gray matter is reversed from that in the [Link] gray matter containing the
cell bodies of motor and association neurons lies on the inner side and the
white matter on the outer side.

Function:
• Reflexes below the neck.
• Conducts sensory impulses from the skin and muscles to the brain
• Conducts motor responses from the brain to muscles of the trunk and
limbs.

Reflexes(Involuntary actions)
There are two types of actions which occur in our body
• Voluntary( performed consciously)
Example-you wish to watch some programme on TV and you switch it on and
press the remote for a particular channel.

You pick up an apple and eat it.

 • Involuntary ( performed unconsciously)
Example- Some particle falls into your eye and there is immediate
flushing of tears to wash out the particle( glandular secretion)
• Instantaneous withdrawal of hand when it accidentally touches a hot
iron( muscular movement)
• Shivering when it is too cold( muscular contraction) or sweating when
too hot( glandular secretion)
• Dilation of the eye pupil to look in the dark and vice versa( muscular
movement)

Reflex action
It is an automatic /quick/ immediate, involuntary action in the body brought
about by a stimulus.

Types of Reflexes
Reflexes are two types
• Natural (inborn)- is one in which no previous experience or learning is
[Link] reflexes are inborn , i.e. inherited from the parents.
Ex- Blinking, Coughing, Sneezing: these are protective.

Salivation, Swallowing, peristalsis: these provide functional efficiency.

• Conditioned( acquired)- is one which develops during lifetime due to

experience or learning.
Ex- What you experience simply at the sight or by the snell of a familiar
tasty food resulting in watering ( salivation) of your mouth. This means
that if you have not eaten that food earlier, the response would not
occur.

A conditioned reflex is an involuntary, spontaneous automatic response

brought about due to a previously learned experience.
Salivation can occur as a natural [Link] starts flowing down when
you chew or eat food. But in the above example of salivation , the sight
or the smell of food was for the [Link] brain actually
remembered the taste of the food and worked in an unconscious
[Link] conditioned reflexes are not inborn thus also called acquired
reflexes.

Reflex Arc-A reflex arc is the shortest route that can be taken by an
impulse from a receptor to an effector.

Path of reflex arc

Stimulus--→ Receptor-→ Sensory nerve---→ Brain or spinal cord--→
Motor nerve--→ Effector--→ Response