Basic Definitions

Constant: It is a symbol which retains the same value throughout a set of mathematical
operations. Constant are of two types: Absolute and arbitrary.

Constant of the type 15, 7, -100 etc. do not change whatever we may perform are known as
absolute constants whereas m and c in the equation y = mx + c of a straight line are arbitrary
constants as these remain fixed for a particular straight line but vary from straight line to
straight line.

Variable: A variable is a quantity which is capable of taking various numerical values.

Variables are of two types: Dependent and Independent.
Consider the equation y = log e x in which x can take any value, but for each value of x ,
there exist a value of y . Here x is called independent variable and y whose value depends
upon that of x is called dependent variable.

Function: If two variable quantities x and y according to some law are so related that
corresponding to each value of x only one value of y can be obtained, then y is said to be a
function of x .

When we study circles, we usually call the area A and the radius r . Since A =  r 2 , we say
that A is a function of r i.e. A= f (r ) . The equation A =  r 2 is a rule that tells how to
calculate a unique output value of A for each possible input value of the radius r .

Domain: The set of all possible values of independent variables for which the given function
is defined is called the domain of the function.

Range: The set of all possible output of the dependent variable after using the values of
independent variables is called the range of the function.

Limit of a function: When x approaches a constant quantity a from either side, if there
exists a definite finite number l , towards which f (x ) approaches such that the numerical
difference of f (x ) and l can be made as small as we please by taking x sufficiently close to
a , then l is defined as the limit of f (x ) as x tends to a . This is symbolically written as
lim f (x ) = l .
x→a

Continuity of a function: Geometrically, If the graph of a function y = f (x ) is a continuous

curve we naturally call the function a continuous one. It means there should not be any
sudden change in the value of the function i.e. a small change in the value of x should
produce a small change in the value of y and so the graph of the function should be a
continuous curve without any break in it.

Differentiation:
Differentiation is an operator that calculate the rate of change of dependent variable with
d
respect to independent variable and it is denoted by .
dx

Page 1 of 23
In case of circles, we usually denote the area by A and the radius by r . Since A =  r 2 , we
say that A is a function of r i.e. A= f (r ) .
dA dA
Now if we differentiate A with respect to r i.e. we calculate than represents the
dr dr
rate of change of area with respect to radius. In other words, we are calculating the rate at
which if the radius is increase, the area of the circle will increase or if the radius is decrease,
the area of the circle will decrease.

Signum Function: The signum function defined as sgn (x ) and is defined as

− 1, if x  0

sgn (x ) =  0 , if x = 0
 1 , if x  0


An open box is to be made from a 16-inch by 30-inch piece of cardboard by cutting out
squares of equal size from the four corners and bending up the sides.
i) Let V be the volume of the box that results when the squares have sides of
length x. Find a formula for V as a function of x.
ii) Find the domain of V.

30-2x

16-2x 16 in

x
x 30 inch

Let x be the length of the square to be cut out and V be the volume of the resulting box. Because we
are removing a square of side x from each corner, the resulting box will have dimensions 16 − 2 x
by 30 − 2 x by x .

Since the volume of a box is the product of its dimensions, we have

V = (16 − 2x) (30 − 2x) x
= 4x (8 − x) (15 − x)
= 480 x − 92 x 2 + 4 x 3

Because x represents a length, it cannot be negative and because the width of the cardboard
is 16 inches, we cannot cutout squares whose sides are more than 8 inches long. Thus the
variable x must satisfy 0  x  8 .

Page 2 of 23
A rectangular storage container with an open top has a volume of 10m 3. The length of
its base is twice of its width. Material for the base costs $20 per square meter; material
for the side’s costs $14 per square meter. Express the cost of materials as a function of
the width of the base.

w
2w

Let w and 2 w be the width and length and h be the height of the rectangular storage
container respectively.
The area of the base is ( 2w )w = 2w 2 .
(
So the cost in dollars of the materials for the base is 20 2w 2 = 40 w2 . )
Two of the sides have area w h and other two have area 2 wh . So the cost of material for the
sides is 14 2(wh) + 2 (2wh) = 84 wh .

The total cost is therefore , C = 40 w2 + 84 wh .

Here the volume of the container = 2w  w  h = 2 w2 h .

According to the question 2 w2 h = 10
5
which gives h = 2
w
5
Using h = 2 in C = 40 w2 + 84 wh , we have
w
5
C = 40 w2 + 84 w 2
w
420
= 40 w2 + , w0
w
This is the required expression.

A cup of hot coffee sits on a table. You pour in some cool milk and let it sit for an hour.
Sketch a rough graph of the temperature of the coffee as a function of time.

Find the domain and range of

f1 ( x ) = 2 + x 2 − x − 12 ; Domain of Range of f1 ( x ) = [2,  )
f 2 ( x ) = ln x 2 ; Domain of f 2 ( x ) = ( 0,  ) Range of f 2 ( x ) = ( − ,  )

Page 3 of 23
 f3 ( x ) = ( x + 1) − 3 ; Domain of f3 ( x ) = ( − ,  ) Range of f 3 ( x ) = [−3,  )
2

1
f4 ( x ) = ; Domain of f 4 ( x ) = ( − , 2 ) Range of f 4 ( x ) = ( 0,  )
( − x + 2)
f5 ( x ) = x 2 − 2 ; Domain of f5 ( x ) = ( − ,  ) Range of f5 ( x ) = [−2,  )
f 6 ( x ) = Cos x Domain of f 6 ( x ) = ( − ,  ) Range of f 6 ( x ) =  −1,1
f7 ( x ) = x2 − x − 6 ;
Domain of f 7 ( x ) = R − ( −2,3) / (− , − 2]  [3, ) Range of f 7 ( x ) = [0,  )
f8 ( x ) = e x ; Domain of f8 ( x ) = ( − ,  ) Range of f8 ( x ) = [0,  )
f9 ( x ) = Cos 2 x Domain of f9 ( x ) = ( − ,  ) Range of f9 ( x ) =  0,1

Limit and Continuity

 1x
 e , when x  0

Test the continuity of f (x ) at x = 0 , where f (x ) =  1x .
e + 1
0 , when x = 0

L.H.L = lim− f (x ) R.H.L = lim+ f (x )

x →0 x →0

= lim f (0 − h )
h →0
= lim f (0 + h )
1 h →0
0− h
e 1
= lim 1 e 0+ h
h →0
e 0− h
+1 = lim 1
h →0

−
1 e 0+ h + 1
h
e
= lim 1 1
h →0 −
e h
+1 e h

1 1
−
1
− 1 1   e h h
1
e 0
=e =  = =0 = = lim = lim
e
= lim
e   +1  h →0 1 h →0 1 h →0 1

0 e h
+1 e h
+1 e h
1
= 1 1
+ 1
0 +1 e h
e h
e h

1
=0 = lim 1
h →0 −
1+ e h

and f (0) = 0
1
=
1+ 0
=1

Page 4 of 23
Since lim− f ( x )  lim+ f ( x ) , lim f ( x ) doesn’t exist.
x →0 x →0 x →0

Since L.H.L. = f (0)  R.H.L., the given function is discontinuous at x = 0 .

 2 1
 x sin , when x  0
Test the continuity of f (x ) at x = 0 where f ( x ) =  x .
0 , when x = 0

L.H.L = lim− f (x ) R.H.L = lim+ f (x )

x →0 x →0

= lim f (0 − h ) = lim f (0 + h )
h →0 h →0

= lim (0 − h ) Sin = lim (0 + h ) Sin

2 1 2 1
h →0 (0 − h) h →0 (0 + h)
1 1
= − lim h 2 Sin = lim h 2 Sin
h →0 h h →0 h
= 0  a finite number between − 1 and 1  =0
=0

and f (0) = 0

Since L.H.L. = R.H.L.= f (0) , the given function is continuous at x = 0 .

 1
e x − 1
 , when x  0
Test the continuity of f (x ) at x = 0 , where f (x ) =  1 .
e x + 1
0 , when x = 0


L.H.L = lim− f (x ) R.H.L = lim+ f (x )

x →0 x →0

= lim f (0 − h ) = lim f (0 + h )
h →0 h →0
1 1
e 0−h −1 e 0+ h −1
= lim 1
= lim 1
h →0 h →0
e 0−h +1 e 0+ h +1
1 1
−
e h −1 e h −1
= lim 1
= lim 1
h →0 − h →0
e h +1 e h +1
0 −1 −
1
= 1 −e h
0 +1 = lim
h →0 1
= −1 −
1+ e h

1− 0
=
and f (0) = 0 1+ 0
=1

Page 5 of 23
Since L.H.L.  R.H.L.  f (0) , the given function is discontinuous at x = 0 .

 tan kx
 ,x0
Find a nonzero value for the constant k that makes f ( x) =  x continuous at
3x + k , x  0
2

x = 0.

L.H.L = lim− f (x ) R.H.L = lim+ f (x )

x →0 x →0

= lim f (0 − h ) = lim f (0 + h )
h →0 h →0

tan k (0 − h ) = lim 3 (0 + h ) + k 2
= lim
h →0 (0 − h) h →0

tan kh
= lim =k 2
h →0 h
tan kh
= lim .k and f (0) = 3.0 + k 2
kh → 0 kh
=k 2
=1 . k
=k

sin  tan 
lim =1 lim =1
 →0   →0 
Since the given function is continuous at x = 0 ; L.H.L. = R.H.L. = f (0)
which gives k 2 = k
k (k −1) = 0
k = 0 ,1
Therefore the nonzero value of the constant k is 1.

 ln x ; when 0  x 1

Determine whether g (x )=  0 ; when 1  x  2 is continuous or not at x = 1 and x = 2 .

1+ x ; when x  2
2

x2; when x  0

Determine whether h (x ) =  x ; when 0  x  1 is continuous or not at x = 0 and x = 1 .
1 / x ; when x  1


Page 6 of 23
Observe the following graph and find

(a) f ( −8 ) , (b) f ( 6 ) , (c) lim f ( x ) , (d) lim f ( x ) ,

x →− 2− x →− 2+

(e) lim f ( x ) , (f) lim f ( x ) , (g) lim f ( x ) , (h) lim f ( x )

x →− 2 x →6 − x → 6+ x→ 6

Average velocity and instantaneous velocity

If f ( t ) represents the position of an object relative to some fixed location at time t as it moves
along a straight line, then for two times a and b ( a  b ) f ( b ) − f ( a ) gives the signed distance
between position f ( a ) and f ( b ) . The average velocity vavg is then given by
signed distance f ( b ) − f ( a )
vavg = =
time b−a

If f ( t ) represents the position of an object relative to some fixed location at time t as it moves
along a straight line, then the instantaneous velocity at time t = a is given by
f ( a + h) − f ( a ) f (a + h) − f (a)
v ( a ) = lim = lim
h →0 ( a + h) − a h →0 h
provided the limits exists.
The height of a falling object t seconds after being dropped from a height of 64 feet is given by
f ( t ) = 64 − 16t 2 feet. Find the average velocity between times t = 1 and t = 2 and the
instantaneous velocity at time t = 2 .

Here, f ( t ) = 64 − 16t
2

f ( 2 ) = 64 − 16 ( 2 ) = 64 − 64 = 0
2

f (1) = 64 − 16 (1) = 64 − 16 = 48
2

The average velocity between times t = 1 and t = 2

Page 7 of 23
 signed distance f ( 2 ) − f (1) 0 − 48
vavg = = = = - 48 ft/s
time 2 −1 1

The instantaneous velocity at time t = 2 is given by

f ( 2 + h ) − f ( 2)
v ( 2 ) = lim
h →0 h
64 − 16 ( 2 + h )2  − 0
= lim  
h →0 h
64 − 16 ( 4 + 4h + h 2 ) 
= lim  
h →0 h
−64h − 16h2
= lim
h →0 h
= lim ( −64 − 16h )
h →0

= −64 ft/s

A particle moves on a line away from its initial position so that after t seconds it
is S = 2t 2 + 5t − 1 feet from its initial position.
(a) Find the average velocity of the particle over the interval 1 , 4 .
(b) Find the instantaneous velocity at t = 3 second.

A particle moves on a line away from its initial position so that after t seconds it
is S = 2t 2 − t feet from its initial position.
(a) Find the average velocity of the particle over the interval 1 , 3 .
(b) Find the instantaneous velocity at t = 3 second.

Differentiation

The concept of derivative is said to have been first conceived by ‘Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz
(a German Mathematician who born at Leipzig on first July 1646 and died on 14 November
1716) but he couldn’t get it published and the same was first published by Sir Issac Newton
(a English Mathematician who born on Chrismas day 1642 and died on 20 March 1727 and
was burried in Westminster Abbey ) and thus Newton is considered as the ‘father of
Calculus’. The subject of Calculus was later on presented in the present modified form by
Augustin Louis Cauchy (a French Mathematician who born at Paris on 21 August 1789 and
died on 23 May 1857).

Page 8 of 23
Geometrical Meaning of derivative:
Let P (x, y ) and Q (x +  x, y +  y ) be two neighboring points on a curve y = f (x ) . Then the
equation of the line PQ is
y + y − y
Y − y= ( X − x ) ,where X and Y are current coordinates.
x + x − x
y
Or, Y − y = ( X − x ) … … … … (1)
x

Y
Q (x+  x, y+  y)

P (x,y)


O T X

As Q tends to P (i.e. approaches P) along the curve, the straight line PQ tends to a definite
straight line PT called the tangent to the curve at P.
y dy
Now as Q→P,  y → 0,  x → 0, → and the line PQ tends to the tangent PT to the
x dx
curve at P, so from (1), the equation of the tangent to the curve at P is
dy
Y − y= (X − x)
dx
dy  d y
Or, Y = X +  y − x  … … … … (2)
dx  d x 
Which is of the form Y = m X + c … … … … (3)
If the tangent PT makes an angle  with the positive direction of X-axis, then comparing (20
and (3)
dy
= tan 
dx

at the point P (x , y ) of a curve y = f (x) is the tangent

dy
i.e. the differential co-efficient
dx
of the angle  which the tangent to the curve at P makes with the positive direction of X-
axis.

Page 9 of 23
 Differentiability

f (a − h ) − f (a )
Lf  (a ) = lim
h →0 −h
f (a + h) − f (a )
Rf  (a ) = lim
h →0 h
When Lf  (a ) = Rf  (a ) and finite, then the given function is differentiable at x = a

Continuous =>> must limit exist LHL=RHL=f(a)

Limit exist =>> may or may not be continuous

Differentiable =>> must continuous

continuous =>> may or may not be Differentiable

f (1 − h ) − f (1)
Lf  ( a ) = lim
h→0 −h
ln (1 − h ) − 0
= lim
h→0 −h
 ln x ; when 0  x 1
 ln (1 − h )
g (x )=  0 ; when 1  x  2 = lim

h→0 −h
1+ x ; when x  2
2
1
−
= lim
(1 − h )
h→0 −1
=1

 1
 x sin , when x  0
Show that f ( x ) =  x is not differentiable at x = 0
0 , when x = 0
 1  2 1
 sin , when x  0  x sin , when x  0
f ( x) =  x f ( x) =  x
0 , when x = 0 
0 , when x = 0

f (0 − h ) − f (0) f (0 + h ) − f (0)
Lf  (0) = lim Rf  (0) = lim
h →0 −h h→0 h
1  
 (0 − h ) Sin
1
= lim − 0 1 
h →0 −h  (0 − h )  = lim  (0 + h ) Sin
1
− 0
h →0 h (0 + h ) 

Page 10 of 23
 1 1
= − lim Sin = lim Sin
h →0 h h →0 h
= − a finite number between −1 and 1 = a finite number between − 1 and 1

Since Lf  (a ) and Rf  (a ) are not finite, the given function is not differentiable at x = 0 .



1, when x  0
  
Test the continuity and differentiability of f ( x )= 1+ Sin x , when 0  x  at x = .
 2 2
   2

2 +  x −  , when x 
  2 2
Continuity Test:

    
2
Here f   = 2 +  −  = 2
2 2 2

L.H.L. = lim −
f (x ) R.H.L = lim +
f (x )
 
x→ x→
2 2
   
= lim f  − h  = lim f  + h 
h →0 2  h →0 2 
     
2
= lim 1 + Sin  − h  = lim 2 +  + h − 
h →0   2  h →0  2 2
= lim (1 + Cos h)
h →0
= lim 2 + h
h →0
2
( )
=2 =2

  
Since L.H.L.= R. H. L. = f   = 2 , the given function is continuous at x = .
2 2

Differentiability Test:

       
f  −h− f   f  + h − f  
   
Lf    = lim   2 2  2
2
Rf    = lim
 2  h→0 −h  2  h→0 h

= lim
1
1 + Cos h − 2
h →0 − h  
2
2+ + h−  −2
1 − Cosh 2 2
= lim = lim
h →0 h h →0 h

Page 11 of 23
 h h2
2Sin 2 = lim
= lim 2 h →0 h
h →0 h = lim h
h h →0
Sin = 0
= lim 2 lim Sin h
h
→0
h h
→0 2
2 2
2
=1 0
= 0


Since Lf  (a ) = Rf  (a ) = 0 , the given function is differentiable at x = .
2


 x 2 + 1 , when x  0

Test the continuity and differentiability of f (x ) =  x , when 0  x  1 at x = 0 or
 1
 , when x  1
 x
x =1 .

Let f (x ) = x + x − 1 + x − 2 . What is the domain and range of f (x ) ? Test the

continuity and differentiability of f (x ) at x = 0 or x =1 or x=2.

Given, -2 -1 0 1 2
f (x ) = x + x − 1 + x − 2
x + x − 1 + x − 2 , when x  2
 x + x − 1 − (x − 2) , when 1  x  2

=
 x − (x − 1) − (x − 2) , when 0  x  1
− x − (x − 1) − (x − 2), when x  0
 3x − 3 , when x2 3, 6, 9,  
 x +1 , 1 x  2
 when 2, 2.5, 2.999,
=
 −x+3 , when 0  x 1 3, 2.9,  , 2
− 3x + 3, when x 0 3, 6, 9,  

Domain of f (x ) = ( −  ,  )
Range of f (x ) = [ 2 ,  )

Page 12 of 23
Here f (0) = 3 , f (1) = 2 , f (2) = 3

L.H.L = lim − f (x ) R.H.L = lim + f (x )

x →1 x →1

= lim f (1 − h ) = lim f (1 + h )
h →0 h →0
= lim − (1 − h ) + 3 = lim (1 + h ) + 1
h →0 h →0
=2 =2
Since L.H.L.= R.H.L= f (1) = 2 , the given function is continuous at x = 1 .

f (1 − h ) − f (1) f (1 + h ) − f (1)
Lf  (1) = lim Rf  (1) = lim
h→ 0 −h h→ 0 h
− (1 − h ) + 3 − 2 (1 + h ) + 1 − 2
= lim = lim
h→ 0 −h h→ 0 h
h h
= lim = lim
h→ 0 − h h→ 0 h
= lim (− 1) = lim (1)
h→ 0 h→ 0
= −1 =1

Since Lf  (1)  Rf  (1) , the given function is not differentiable at x =1

Chain Rule:
We know how to differentiate Sin x and x 2 − 4 , but how do we differentiate a composite
( )
like Sin x 2 − 4 . The answer is with the help of chain rule.
The derivative of the composite of two differentiable functions is the product of their
derivatives evaluated at appropriate points.
Let y = f (v) where v = g (x ) then
d y d y dv
=
dx d v dx
Again, if y = f (v) where v = g (w) and w= h (x) then
d y d y dv
=
dx d v dx
d y dv dw
= and so on.
dv dw dx

Logarithmic Differentiation:
If we have a function raised to a power which is also a function, or if we have the product of
a number of functions, to differentiate such expressions it would be convenient first to take

Page 13 of 23
logarithm of the expression and then differentiate. Such a process is called the logarithmic
differentiation.

Implicit Differentiation:
In many cases it may be inconvenient or even impossible to solve a given equation of the
form f (x , y ) = 0 for y in terms of x . However, the equation may be define y as a function
of x . In such cases, y is said to be an implicit function. Implicit differentiation takes four
steps:
i) Differentiate both sides of the equation with respect to x treating y as a differentiable
function of x .
dy
ii) Collect the terms with on one side of the equation.
dx
dy
iii) Factor out .
dx
dy
iv) Solve for .
dx
Parametric Differentiation:

Sometimes in the equation of a curve, x and y are expressed in terms of a third variable
dy
known as a parameter. In such cases, to find it is not essential to eliminate the parameter
dx
and express y in terms of x . We may proceed as follows:
Let x = f (t ) and y = g (t ) then
dx dy
Find and
dt dt

d y d y dt d y d x dx
Now, = = / [  0]
dx d t dx dt dt dt

−1
−1
Differentiate x sin x
with respect to sin x.
sin −1 x
Let y = x
−1
 ln y = ln x sin x = Sin −1 x ln x
1dy 1 1
 = Sin −1 x + ln x
y dx x 1− x 2
dy  1 1 
 = y  Sin −1 x + ln x  … … … … … (i)
dx  x 1 − x 2 


And z = Sin −1 x

Page 14 of 23
 dz 1
 = … … … … … … … … … … … (ii)
dx 1− x 2

 1 1 
dy y  Sin −1 x + ln x 

d x SIn
−1
x
 =
dz
=
dx
=


x 2 
1− x 
( )
Now
−1 dz 1
d SIn x dx
dx 1− x 2
 Sin −1 x ln x 
sin −1 x  
= x 1− x 2
+
 x 2 
1− x 


Differentiate (tan x ) + (Cot x ) tan x with respect to x .

Cot x

Let y = (tan x ) Cot x + (Cot x ) tan x

= u + v … … … … … … … … … … … … (i)

Where
u = (tan x ) Cot x
 ln u = Cot x ln (tan x)


1 du
u dx
= Cot x
1
tan x
( )
Sec 2 x + ln (tan x ) − Co sec 2 x ( )

du
dx

= u Cot 2 x Sec 2 x − Co sec 2 x ln (tan x ) 
v = (Cot x ) tan x
 ln v = tan x ln (Cot x)


1 dv
v dx
= tan x
1
Cot x
(
− Co sec 2 x + ln (Cot x ) Sec 2 x )

dv
dx

= v ln (Cot x ) Sec 2 x − tan 2 x Co sec 2 x 
Differentiating (i) with respect to x
d y du dv
= +
d x dx dx


d
dx
  
(tan x ) Cot x + (Cot x ) tan x = (tan x ) Cot x Cot 2 x Sec 2 x − Co sec 2 x ln (tan x ) 

+ (Cot x ) tan x ln (Cot x ) Sec 2 x − tan 2 x Co sec 2 x 

Page 15 of 23
Differentiate x y y x = 1 with respect to x .

Given, x y y x = 1

Taking logarithm on both sides

( )
 ln x y y x = ln 1
 ln x y + ln y x = 0
 y ln x + x ln y = 0
1 dy 1 dy
 y + ln x +x + ln y = 0
x dx y dx
dy x  y
  ln x +  = − − ln y
d x y  x
y
− − ln y
dy x
 =
dx x
ln x +
y

Maxima And Minima

Definition: A function f (x ) is said to have a maximum for a value a of x if f (a ) is greater than

any other value that the function can have in the small neighborhood of x = a .

Similarly, a function f (x ) is said to have a minimum for a value a of x if f (a ) is less than any
other value that the function can have in the small neighborhood of x = a .

maximum

minimum

Taylor’s Theorem:
h2 h3
f (a + h ) = f (a ) + h f  (a ) + f  (a ) + f  (a ) + ... ... ... ...
2! 3!
h2 h3
f (a − h ) = f (a ) − h f  (a ) + f  (a ) − f  (a ) + ... ... ... ...
2! 3!

Page 16 of 23
This gives
h2 h3
f (a + h ) − f (a ) = h f  (a ) + f  (a ) + f  (a ) + ... ... ... ...
2! 3!
h2 h3
f (a − h ) − f (a ) = − h f  (a ) + f  (a ) − f  (a ) + ... ... ... ...
2! 3!
Now considering f  (a) only,
f (a + h) − f (a) = h f  (a)
f (a − h) − f (a) = − h f  (a )
Since for maximum f (a + h) − f (a )  0 and minimum f (a + h) − f (a )  0 , from above two
equations, we conclude that maximum and minimum value is possible only when f  (a ) = 0 .

Now considering f  (a ) only we have

h2
f (a + h ) − f (a ) = f  (a )
2!
h2
f (a − h ) − f (a ) =
f  (a )
2!
Since for maximum value f (a + h) − f (a) 0 and also f (a − h) − f (a ) 0 , we conclude that
when f  (a) 0 we have a maximum value at x = a .
Since for minimum value f (a + h) − f (a)  0 and also f (a − h) − f (a)  0 , we conclude that
when f  (a)  0 we have a minimum value at x = a .

If f  (a ) = 0 , we consider f  (a) only, then

h3
f (a + h ) − f (a ) = f  (a )
3!
h3
f (a − h ) − f (a ) = −
f  (a )
3!
Since for maximum f (a + h) − f (a )  0 and minimum f (a + h) − f (a )  0 , from above two
equations, we conclude that, if f  (a )  0 then neither maximum nor minimum value

If f  (a ) = 0 , we consider f iv
(a ) only
h4
f (a + h ) − f (a ) = f iv
(a )
4!
h 4 iv
f (a − h ) − f (a ) = f (a )
4!
Since for maximum value f (a + h) − f (a) 0 and also f (a − h) − f (a ) 0 , we conclude that
when f iv (a )  0 we have a maximum value at x = a .
Since for minimum value f (a + h) − f (a)  0 and also f (a − h) − f (a)  0 , we conclude that
when f iv (a )  0 we have a minimum value at x = a .
And so on.

Page 17 of 23
Working method:

If function f (x) be given, find f (x ) and equate it to zero. Solve this equation for x .
Let its roots be a1 , a1 , a3 , … … ….

Find f (x ) and hence find f (a1 ), f (a2 ), …. …. …. …..

If f (a1 ) is negative we have a maximum at x = a1 .

If f (a1 ) is positive we have a minimum at x = a1 .
( )
If f (a1 ) = 0 find f  x and then f (a1 ) .
( )
If f  a1  0 , then there is neither maxima nor minima at x = a1.
If f (a1 ) = 0 ; find f iv (x ) and then f iv (a1 ) .
If f iv (a1 ) is negative, then f (x) is maximum and if f iv (a1 ) is positive, then f (x) is minimum
at x = a1 .
If f iv (a1 ) = 0 Then find f v (a1 ) and so on.

f (a1 ) = f (a1 ) = ................. = f n −1

(a1 ) = 0 and f n
(a1 )  0
(1) if n be odd, then there is neither maxima nor minima at x = a1
(2)if n be even and if f n (a1 ) is negative then f (x) is maximum at x = a1 and
if f n (a1 ) is positive then f (x) is minimum at x = a1 .

Find the maximum and minimum values of y = x 5 − 5 x 4 + 5 x 3 − 10 .

Given, y = x 5 − 5 x 4 + 5 x 3 − 10
y  = 5 x 4 − 20 x 3 +15 x 2
y  = 20 x 3 − 60 x 2 + 30 x
Setting y  = 0 we get
5 x 4 − 20 x 3 + 15 x 2 = 0
x 4 − 4 x 3 + 3x 2 = 0
(
x 2 x2 − 4 x +3 =0 )
x 2 ( x − 3) (x − 1) = 0
x = 0 , 1, 3

y   when x = 1 = 20 − 60 + 30 = − 10  0

Therefore, the given function is maximum when x = 1

and maximum value= f (1) = 1 − 5 + 5 −10 = − 9
y   when x = 3 = 540 − 540 + 90 = 90  0

Page 18 of 23
Therefore, the given function is minimum when x = 3
and minimum value= f (3) = 243 − 40 5 + 13 5 −10 = − 37
y   when x = 0 = 0
y   when x = 0 = 30

Therefore, the given function is neither maximum nor minimum when x = 0

x3
Find the extremum values of + a x 2 − 3a 2 x .
3
x3
Given y = + a x 2 − 3a 2 x
3
d y 3x 2
= + 2a x − 3a 2
dx 3
= x 2 + 2a x − 3a 2
d2 y
= 2 x + 2a
d x2
dy
Setting = 0 we get x = a , − 3 a
dx
d2 y
W hen x = − 3 a , = − 6a + 2a = − 4a  0
d x2
Therefore, the given function is maximum when x = − 3 a
and maximum value= f (− 3 a ) = 9 a 3

d2 y
W hen x = a , = 2a + 2a = 4a  0
d x2
Therefore, the given function is minimum when x = a

and minimum value= f (a ) =

5 3
a
3

An open box is to be made from a 16-inch by 30-inch piece of cardboard by cutting out
squares of equal size from the four corners and bending up the sides. What size should
the squares be to obtain a box with the largest volume?

30-2x

16-2x 16 in

x
x 30 inch

Page 19 of 23
Let x be the length of the square to be cut out and V be the volume of the resulting box. Because we
are removing a square of side x from each corner, the resulting box will have dimensions 16 − 2 x
by 30 − 2 x by x .

Since the volume of a box is the product of its dimensions, we have

V = (16 − 2x) (30 − 2x) x
= 4x (8 − x) (15 − x)
= 480 x − 92 x 2 + 4 x 3

Because x represents a length, it cannot be negative and because the width of the cardboard
is 16 inches, we cannot cutout squares whose sides are more than 8 inches long. Thus the
variable x must satisfy 0  x  8 .

dV
Now = 480 −184 x + 12 x 2
dx
= 4 (x − 12) (3x − 10)

dV 10
Setting = 0 yields x = 12 and x =
dx 3

Since x =12 falls outside the interval 0 , 8 the maximum value of V occurs either at the
10
critical number x = or at the endpoints x = 0 , x = 8 .
3

x 0 10 8
3
19600
V 0 0
27

10 19600
Therefore maximum volume occurs when x = inches and maximum volume is .
3 27

A garden is to be laid out in a rectangular area and protected by a chicken wire fence.
What is the largest possible area of the garden if only 100 running feet of chicken wire is
available for the fence?

Let x (ft) , y (ft) and A (ft2) be the length, width and area of the rectangular garden.

Then A = xy … … … … … (i)

Page 20 of 23
Since the perimeter of the rectangular garden is 100 ft., the variables x and y are
related by the equation
2 x + 2 y = 100 or y = 50 − x … … … … … … (ii)

Substituting (ii) in (i)

A = x (50 − x ) = 50 x − x 2 … … … … … … … … … (iii)
Because x represents a length it can’t be negative and because the two sides of length x
cannot have a combined length exceeding the total perimeter of 100 ft , the variable x must
satisfy 0  x  50 .

Differentiating (iii) with respect to x

dA
= 50 − 2 x
dx
dA
Setting = 0 we obtain
dx
50 − 2 x = 0
Or, x = 25
Thus the maximum occurs at one of the values x = 0 , x = 25 , x = 50 .
Substituting these values in (iii) we get

x 0 25 50
A 0 625 0

The maximum area is 625 ft2 occurs at x = 25

Substituting x = 25 in (ii) y = 50 − 25 = 25

So the rectangle of perimeter 100 ft with greater area is a square with sides of length 25 ft.

1
Show that the maximum value at x + is less than its minimum value.
x

Analysis of Functions: Increasing, Decreasing, Concave up and Concave down

Definition: Let f be defined on an interval and let x 1 and x 2 denote numbers in that interval.
( ) ( )
(a) f is increasing on the interval if f x 1  f x 2 whenever x 1  x 2 .
(b) f is decreasing on the interval if f (x )  f (x ) whenever x  x
1 2 1 2 .
(c) f is constant on the interval if f (x ) = f (x ) for all x and x .
1 2 1 2

f (x2 )
decreasing Constant

Increasing
f (x 1 ) f (x 1 )
f (x 1 ) f (x2 ) f (x 2 )
x1 x2 x1 x2
x1 x2
Page 21 of 23
Theorem: Let f be a function that is continuous on a, b and differentiable on (a, b) then
(a) If f  (x)  0  x(a , b) then f is increasing on a, b.
(b) If f  (x) 0  x (a , b) then f is decreasing on a, b.
(c) If f  (x) = 0  x(a , b) then f is constant on a, b.

Definition: If f is differentiable on an open interval I , then f is said to be concave up on I if f 

is increasing on I and f is said to be concave down on I if f  is decreasing on I .

Theorem: If f be twice differentiable on an open interval I .

(a) if f   0 on I , then f is concave up on I .
(b) if f   0 on I , then f is concave down on I .

Definition: Inflection Point:

If f is continuous on an open interval containing x 0 and if f changes the direction of its concavity
at the point (x0 , f (x0 )) then we say that f has an inflection point at x 0 and we call the point
(x0 , f (x0 )) on the graph of f an inflection point of f .

Critical value:
Values of the domain of f at which either f  (x) = 0 or f is not differentiable are called
Critical Values / numbers.

Find the critical points of y = 3x 4 + 4 x 3 − 12 x 2 + 2 . Identify the intervals on which y is

increasing and decreasing, concave up and concave down. Also find the inflection points,
if any, of the above function.

Here y = 3x 4 + 4 x 3 − 12 x 2 + 2
y  =12 x 3 + 12 x 2 − 24 x
(
=12 x x 2 + x − 2 ) -2 0 1

=12 x ( x + 2)(x − 1)

The sign analysis of y  is given below:

Interval 12 x ( x + 2) (x − 1) y Conclusion
x− 2 - ve - ve - ve -ve y is decreasing on ( −  , − 2]
− 2 x 0 - ve + ve - ve + ve y is increasing on [ − 2 , 0]
0  x 1 + ve +ve - ve -ve y is decreasing on [ 0 , 1]
x 1 + ve + ve + ve + ve y is increasing on [1, )

y  = 36 x 2 + 24 x − 24
−b  b2 − 4ac −2  4 + 24
=12 ( 3x 2 + 2 x − 2 ) x= =
2a 6

Page 22 of 23
  −1+ 7   −1− 7 
=12  x −  x−



 3  3 
=12 (x − 0.549 ) (x +1.215) -1.215 0.549

The sign analysis of y  is given below:

(x − 0.549) (x +1.215)
Interval y  Conclusion
x  − 1.215 - ve - ve + ve y is concave up on ( −  , − 1.215 )
− 1.215  x  0.549 - ve + ve - ve y is concave down on ( − 1.215 , 0.549)
x  0.549 + ve +ve +ve y is concave up on ( 0.549 ,  )

From the above sign analysis of y  we see that x = − 1.215 , 0.549 are two inflection points
of the given function.

Find the critical points of f ( x) = 5 + 12 x − x3 . Identify the intervals on which y is

increasing and decreasing, concave up and concave down. Also find the inflection points,
if any, of the above function.

x2
Here f ( x) = 5 + 12 x − x3 x−2
f  (x ) = 12 − 3x 2
(
=3 4 − x2 ) = 3 (2 + x) (2 − x)
-2 − 2  x 2 2

The sign analysis of f  (x ) is given below:

Interval ( x + 2) (2 − x) f  (x ) Conclusion
x− 2 - ve + ve - ve f (x ) is decreasing on ( −  , − 2]
− 2 x 2 + ve + ve + ve f (x ) is increasing on [ − 2 , 2]
x2 + ve - ve - ve f (x ) is increasing on [ 2 , )
x0

f  (x) = − 6 x
0
x 0
The sign analysis of f  (x ) is given below:

Interval f  (x ) Conclusion
x0 + ve f (x ) is concave up on ( −  , 0 )
x0 -ve f (x ) is concave down on ( 0 ,  )

From the above sign analysis of f  (x ) we see that x = 0 is an inflection point of the given
function.

Page 23 of 23