A

Seminar Report

On

VARIABLE FREQUENCY DRIVE(VFD)

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for

the award of the degree of
MASTER OF TECHNOLOGY

IN

PEED

Submitted by

PATI MANIKANTA 24A31D5414

Under the esteemed guidance of

Mrs. G. Santhosi Bhanu

Assistant Professor

Assistant Professor of EEE

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

PRAGATI ENGINEERING COLLEGE

(AUTONOMOUS)
(Approved by AICTE, Permanently Affiliated to JNTUK, KAKINADA, Accredited by NBA, NAAC with ‘A+’ Grade)
ADB Road, Surampalem, Near Peddapuram, Kakinada District, AP-533437
 PRAGATI ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(AUTONOMOUS)
(Approved by AICTE, Permanently Affiliated to JNTUK, KAKINADA, Accredited by NBA, NAAC with ‘A+’ Grade)
ADB Road, Surampalem, Near Peddapuram, Kakinada District, AP-533437

CERTIFICATE
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

This is to certify that the project report entitled “ VARIABLE FREQUENCY

DRIVE(VFD)” is being submitted by PATI MANIKANTA (24A31D5414), in
partial fulfillment for the award of the Degree of Masters of Technology, during the
year 2024 – 2026 in PEED of Pragati Engineering College, for the record of a
Bonafide work carried out by him.

Project Guide: Head of the Department:

Mr. [Link] BHANU M. Tech Dr. K.V. DURGAPRASAD M. Tech., PhD

Assistant Professor Assistant Professor & HOD
Department of Electrical &Electronics Engineering Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
Pragati Engineering College (A) Pragati Engineering College (A)
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I express my sincere gratitude to my seminar guide, Mr. [Link] BHANU,

Assistant professor of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, who deserves a special note
of thanks and gratitude for extending his/her fullest co-operation and invaluable guidance.
Without consistent support, this seminar would never have materialized.

I express my deep sense of gratitude to Dr. [Link], Assistant

Professor and Head of the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, for
showing keen interest at every stage of the development of this seminar and for guiding me
in every aspect.

I wish to express my special thanks to our beloved Dr. G. NARESH, Professor &
Principal, for giving guidelines and encouragement.

I wish to express my special thanks to our beloved Dr. K. SATYANARAYANA,

Professor & Director (Academics), for giving guidelines and encouragement

I wish to express My sincere gratitude to our beloved and respected Dr. P.

KRISHNA RAO, Chairman and Sri. M. V. HARANATHA BABU, Director
(Management) and Sri. M. SATISH, Vice- President for their encouragement and
blessings.

I am thankful to all our faculty members of the Department for their valuable
suggestions. Our sincere thanks are also extended to all the teaching and non-teaching staff
of Pragati Engineering College.

PATI MANIKANTA 24A31D5414

 ABSTRACT

This seminar explores how Variable Frequency Drive (VFD) revolutionizes PEED
workflows. A Variable frequency Drive(VFD) is a type of adjustable speed drive that
controls the speed and torque of an AC motor by adjusting the frequency and voltage of the
motor’s input [Link]’s are widely used in industrial and commerical applications to
improve energy efficiency and provide precise motor [Link] offer benefits like
adjustable speed,soft start/stop,and various protections.
 INDEX PAGE

TOPIC PAGE NO.

1. INTRODUCTION 1
 VARIABLE FREQUENCY DRIVE 1
 WHAT’S THE PURPOSE OF VFD 3
 WHY VFD CAN’T BE REPLACED 3
 VOLTAGE TO FREQUENCY RATIO 4
 HOW VFD WORKS 5
2. OPERATION 7
 VFD CAPACITY CONTROL SAVES ENERGY 8
 MECHANICAL CAPACITY CONTROL 8
 VARIABLE SPEED CAPACITY CONTROL 8
3. TYPES OF VFD 10
 VARIABLE SOURCE INVERTER 11
 CURRENT SOURCE INVERTER 11
 COMPARISON OF VSI and CSI 11
4. ENERGY SAVING WITH VFD 12
 OPTIMIZE POWER USAGE 12
 BEAT PEAK POWER USAGE 12
 POWER FACTOR 12
 REGENERATION 13
 MULTIPLE MOTOR DRIVE 13
 EXTRA ENERGY SAVING POTENTIAL 13

5. APPLICATIONS 14
6. ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS 15
7. CONCLUSION 16
8. REFRENCES 17
 FIGURE INDEX

FIGURE NAME PAGE NO.

1. Figure no. 1 Variable Frequency Drive 2

2. Figure no. 2 Typical VFD Output Waveform 3
3. Figure no.3 Graph showing Voltage/Frequency 4
Ratio for AC motor speed control
4. Figure no.4 A Typical VFD 5
5. Figure no. 5 Mechanical capacity control 7
6. Figure no. 6 Comparison of mechanical capacity control 9
and speed capacity control
7. Figure no.7 VFD soft starter panel 10
8. Figure no.8 VSI induction motor drive 11
9. Figure no.9 CSI induction motor drive 11
 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Overview of VFD

In today’s industrial and commercial world, variable frequency drives (also known as VFD’s,
Frequency Drives, AC motor controllers, and Inverters) are becoming a more and more
important method of speed control. They are used for all but the most demanding speed
control applications. Large rolling mills are among the few places where DC motors and
controls are still used. One of the reasons for this is that AC motors and their associated
controls are much more reliable than the DC motors and the associated controls that to a
large extent they have replaced. In current market VFD‟s ranging from ¼ hp to 30,000 hp
are available for use.

VARIABLE FREQUENCY DRIVE

Variable frequency drive (VFD) usage has increased dramatically in HVAC applications.
The VFDs are now commonly applied to air handlers, pumps, chillers and tower fans. A
better understanding of VFDs will lead to improved application and selection of both
equipment and HVAC systems. This paper is intended to provide a basic understanding of
common VFD terms, VFD operation, and VFD benefits. In addition this paper will discuss
some basic application guidelines regarding harmonic distortion with respect to industry
standards.

1. Variable Frequency Drive (AC drives) are used to stepless speed control of squirrel cage
induction motors mostly used in process plants due to its ruggedness and maintenance free
long life.

2. VFD control speed of motor by varying output voltage and frequency through
sophisticated microprocessor controlled electronics device.

3. VFD consists of Rectifier and inverter units. Rectifier converts AC in DC voltage and
inverter converts DC voltage back in AC voltage.

[Link]
 Figure no. 1 Variable Frequency Drive
A variable-frequency drive (VFD) is a system for controlling the rotational speed of an
alternating current (AC) electric motor by controlling the frequency of the electrical power
supplied to the motor. A variable frequency drive is a specific type of adjustable-speed drive.
Variable-frequency drives are also known as adjustable-frequency drives (AFD), variable-
speed drives (VSD), AC drives, micro drives or inverter drives. Since the voltage is varied
along with frequency, these are sometimes also called VVVF (variable voltage variable
frequency) drives.

Variable-frequency drives are widely used in ventilation systems for large buildings;
variable-frequency motors on fans save energy by allowing the volume of air moved to
match the system demand. They are also used on pumps, elevator, conveyor and machine
tool drives.

The motors that are usually controlled by VFD‟s are induction motors. A three phase
induction motor is one of the simplest power conversion devices ever made. It has one
moving part. If the motor has ball bearings, then an induction motor with ball bearings does
have more than one moving part. VFD‟s are very simple, and hence very reliable. They have
a winding on the stator, or part that
stands still, and a winding on the rotor, or the part that turns. When voltage is applied to the
stator, a voltage is induced (Hence – induction motor) in the stator coil. This causes a current
to flow in both the stator and the rotor. The design of the motor is such that the magnetic
fields of the two currents act against each other to cause a force on the rotor and make it
rotate.

[Link]
What’s the Purpose of VFD’s?

A VFD (Variable Frequency Drive), or rather a VVFD (Variable Voltage and Frequency
Drive) is a precision electronic device specifically designed and used to control the speed of
AC induction motors (single as well as three phase) without affecting the electric
consumption, torque, impedance, magnetic flux, etc. of the motor. It is integrated to an
operator interface for receiving the required speed control commands (using keypads).

Why can’t VFDs be replaced by other straightforward means?

The fundamental speed of any AC motor is inversely proportional to its number of stator
poles and directly proportional to the supply voltage’s frequency. Therefore, to alter the
speed of an AC motor, we need to either change the frequency or the number of stator poles.
Since the number of stator poles for every motor is fixed, obviously we cannot change them.
By varying the frequency of the supply voltage through some simpler means, the speed of
the motor can be changed.

[Link]
However, changing only the frequency at a constant voltage (120 or 230) causes the
equivalent impedance of the motor to decrease, resulting in greater magnetic flux and
causing the motor to start drawing dangerously huge currents. Therefore it becomes
imperative that the supply voltage is also proportionately reduced along with the frequency
at a particular fixed ratio. Failing to do this would cause the magnetic flux of the motor to
saturate and the motor to become damaged. Varying the frequency and voltage
proportionately also ensures a constant torque since the magnetic field in the air gaps is
constant.

The purpose of a VFD is specifically intended to control the speed of an AC motor by strictly
observing the above parameters. Here, the speed of the motor is varied by changing the
magnitude of the input voltage as well the frequency at a constant ratio and thus the motor is
able to maintain a constant torque even at lower speeds.

What’s Voltage to Frequency Ratio, and Why it is so Vital?

The basic characteristic of AC motors makes it imperative that the applied voltage and the
frequency to it are always at a particular constant ratio. Referring to the adjoining graph
(click to enlarge), let’s consider the example of an AC motor operating at 460V/60 Hz
frequency for optimum performance (the slope indicates it and also the torque).

[Link]
Now, if the applied voltage is reduced to 230 volts, keeping the slope coincident to the
original, we clearly see that the frequency required is 30 Hz.

The second graph simply indicates how the slope or the torque of the motor falls in case the
frequency is not changed and is kept at 60 Hz. Dividing 460 by 60 or 230 by 30 we easily
find the required safe operating ratio for the AC motors which comes to about 7.67 volts per
hertz.

This is exactly what the VFDs are designed to maintain and is the main purpose of a
[Link] said that, it will be also important to know that an AC motor speed cannot be
varied beyond its specific base speed (rated name plate speed)

Exceeding this limit will cause field weakening, a reduction in the torque, and a nonlinear or
abrupt behavior of the [Link] the above theory should have helped you understand the
purpose of a VFD, the next page will explain the operating principle of a VFD.

How a VFD Works?

[Link]
The electronic circuit in a VFD unit is discretely divided into three main stages, viz. an input
converter (bridge rectifier stage), a DC Bus (filter stage), and an output inverter (using
microcontrollers and IGBTs).

Let’s look at how each stage works.

 Input Converter: This stage consists of high power diodes arranged in a regular
bridge configuration. The AC mains applied here is rectified and converted into DC.
But this DC is not free from the residual AC components and harmonics. It requires
further filtering.
 DC Bus: Here the rectified DC is stripped and filtered from the left-over harmonics
and AC residues using inductors and capacitors. This stage helps in making the output
to the motors totally ripple free and ideal for AC motors.
 Inverter: As the name indicates, this stage converts the DC from the DC bus back to
AC, but in a very special way that forms the heart or rather the brain of the circuit. It
consists of sophisticated microcontroller ICs designed and programmed especially to
change the output frequency along with the voltage proportionately and also create a
three-phase output from a single phase input. This stage particularly makes VFDs very
unique and most ideal for controlling AC motor speeds.
 Output: The command from the above stage (microcontroller ICs) are sent to the
output IGBTs (Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors) which switch the voltage received
from DC bus into narrow chopped steps (quite similar to the principle used in Dimmer
Switches). To do this the ICs employ PWM technology and convert the DC into quasi-
sinusoidal waves. The longer the switching time of these waves, the higher is the
voltage at the output to the motor and vice versa. This procedure is actually
responsible for two important functions – to change the output voltage without any
wastage of electricity and, very crucially, to change its frequency simultaneously at a
particular given rate to keep the torque and the magnetic flux constant
 VFD has the following important features:
 Over-current protection, especially useful while controlling motors with high inertia.
 Constant torque ensures wider range of speed control, enabling an energy efficient
control throughout the range.
 The VFD acts as a barrier in between all input voltage disturbances like harmonics,
ripples, sags, surges, etc., and obstructs them from entering the motor.

[Link]
 OPERATION
Understanding the basic principles behind VFD operation requires understanding the three
basic sections of the VFD: the rectifier, dc bus, and inverter. The voltage on an alternating
current (ac) power supply rises and falls in the pattern of a sine wave (see Figure 1). When
the voltage is positive, current flows in one direction; when the voltage is negative, the
current flows in the opposite direction. This type of power system enables large amounts of
energy to be efficiently transmitted over great distances.

The rectifier in a VFD is used to convert incoming ac power into direct current (dc) power.
One rectifier will allow power to pass through only when the voltage is positive. A second
rectifier will allow power to pass through only when the voltage is negative. Two rectifiers
are required for each phase of power. Since most large power supplies are three phase, there
will be minimum of 6 rectifiers used (see Figure 2). Appropriately, the term “6 pulse” is
used to describe a drive with 6 rectifiers. A VFD may have multiple rectifier sections, with 6
rectifiers per section, enabling a VFD to be “12 pulse,” “18 pulse,” or “24 pulse.” The
benefit of “multi pulse” VFDs will be described later in the harmonics section.

Rectifiers may utilize diodes, silicon controlled rectifiers (SCR), or transistors to rectify
power. Diodes are the simplest device and allow power to flow any time voltage is of the
proper polarity. Silicon controlled rectifiers include a gate circuit that enables a
microprocessor to control when the power may begin to flow, making this type of rectifier
useful for solid-state starters as well. Transistors include a gate circuit that enables a
microprocessor to open or close at any time, making the transistor the most useful device of
the three. A VFD using transistors in the rectifier section is said to have an “active
front end.”

Figure no. 5 Mechanical capacity control

[Link]
After the power flows through the rectifiers it is stored on a dc bus. The dc bus contains
capacitors to accept power from the rectifier, store it, and later deliver that power through the
inverter section. The dc bus may also contain inductors, dc links, chokes, or similar items
that add inductance, thereby smoothing the incoming power supply to the dc bus. The final
section of the VFD is referred to as an “inverter.” The inverter contains transistors that
deliver power to the motor. The “Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor” (IGBT) is a common
choice in modern VFDs. The IGBT can switch on and off several thousand times per second
and precisely control the power delivered to the motor. The IGBT uses a method named
“pulse width modulation” (PWM) to simulate a current sine wave at the desired frequency
to the motor.

Motor speed (rpm) is dependent upon frequency. Varying the frequency output of the VFD
controls motor speed:

Speed (rpm) = frequency (hertz) x 120 / no. of poles

VFD Capacity Control Saves Energy

Most applications do not require a constant flow of a fluid. Equipment is sized for a peak
load that may account for only 1% of the hours of operation. The remaining hours of
operation need only a fraction of the flow. Traditionally, devices that throttle output have
been employed to reduce the flow. However, when compared with speed control, these
methods are significantly less efficient.

Mechanical Capacity Control

Throttling valves, vanes, or dampers may be employed to control capacity of a constant
speed pump or fan. These devices increase the head, thereby forcing the fan or pump to ride
the curve to a point where it produces less flow (Figure 3). Power consumption is the product
of head and flow. Throttling the output increases head, but reduces flow, and provides some
energy savings.
Pump power ~ flow x head / 39601

Variable Speed Capacity Control

For centrifugal pumps, fans and compressors, the ideal fan (affinity) laws describe how
speed affects flow, head and power consumption. When using speed to reduce capacity, both
the head
and flow are reduced, maximizing the energy savings. A comparison of mechanical and
speed control for capacity reduction (Figure 4) shows that variable speed is the most efficient
means of capacity control.

[Link]
Figure no. 6 Comparison of mechanical capacity control and
speed capacity control

Low Inrush Motor Starting

Motor manufacturers face difficult design choices. Designs optimized for low starting
current often sacrifice efficiency, power factor, size, and cost. With these considerations in
mind, it is common for AC induction motors to draw 6 to 8 times their full load amps when
they are started across the line. When large amounts of current are drawn on the transformers,
a voltage drop can occur, adversely affecting other equipment on the same electrical system.
Some voltage sensitive applications may even trip off line. For this reason, many engineers
specify a means of reducing the starting current of large AC induction motors.

VFD as Starters
A VFD is the ideal soft starter since it provides the lowest inrush of any starter type as
shown in Table B. Unlike all other types of starters, the VFD can use frequency to limit the
power and current delivered to the motor. The VFD will start the motor by delivering power
at a low frequency. At this low frequency, the motor does not require a high level of current.
The VFD incrementally increases the frequency and motor speed until the desired speed is
met. The current level of the motor never exceeds the full load amp rating of the motor at
any time during its start or operation. In addition to the benefit of low starting current, motor
designs can now be optimized for high efficiency. The motor used in a VFD system is
usually a three phase induction motor . Some types of single-phase motors can be used, but
three-phase motors are usually preferred. Various types of synchronous motors offer
advantages in some situations, but induction motors are suitable for most purposes and are
generally the most economical choice.

[Link]
Soft Starters
Wye-delta, part winding, autotransformer, and solid state starters are often used to reduce
inrush during motor starting. All of these starters deliver power to the motor at a constant
frequency and therefore must limit the current by controlling the voltage supplied to the
motor. Wye delta, part winding, and autotransformer starters use special electrical
connections to reduce the voltage. Solid-state starters use SCRs to reduce the voltage. The
amount of voltage reduction possible is limited because the motor needs enough voltage to
generate torque to accelerate. With maximum allowable voltage reduction, the motor will
still draw two to four times the full load amps (FLA) during starting. Additionally, rapid
acceleration associated with wye-delta starters can wear belts and other power transmission
components.

TYPES OF VFD

VOLTAGE SOURCE INVERTER (VSI):

Variable frequency and variable voltage supply for IM control can be obtained from VSI.
VSI allows a variable frequency to be obtained from a dc supply. It can be operated as a
stepped wave inverter or pulse width modulated inverter. When supply is dc, variable dc
input is obtained by connecting a chopper between dc supply and inverter. When supply is ac,
dc input voltage is obtained by connecting a controlled rectifier between supply ac and
inverter. A large electrolytic capacitor is connected in dc link to make inverter operation
independent of rectifier or chopper and to filter out the harmonics in dc link voltage.
Harmonics are reduced, low frequency harmonics are eliminated, associated losses are
reduced and smooth motion is obtained at low speeds also when inverter is operated as pulse
width modulated inverter. Since output voltage can be controlled by PWM, no arrangement
is required for variation of input dc voltage, inverter can be directly connected when supply
is dc and through a diode rectifier when supply is ac.
VSI induction motor drives
V = m Vd / 2√ 2
Where m is modulation index.

[Link]
 VSI INDUCTION MOTOR DRIVE

CURRENT SOURCE INVERTER (CSI): In current source inverter, inverter behaves as

current source due to the presence of large inductance in dc link. For a given speed, torque is
controlled by varying dc link current by changing the inverter voltage. Therefore, when
supply is ac, a controlled rectifier is connected between the supply and inverter and when
supply is dc, a chopper is interposed between the supply and inverter. The maximum value of
dc output voltage of fully controlled rectifier and chopper are chosen so that the motor
terminal voltage saturates at rated value.

CSI induction motor drives

COMPARISON OF CSI AND VSI:

The relative advantages of CSI and V SI are
● CSI is more reliable than VSI because
1 Condition of two devices in the same leg due to commutation failure does not lead to sharp
rise of current through them.

[Link]
2 it has inherent protection against short circuit across motor terminals
● Because of large inductance in dc link and large inverter capacitors, CSI drives has higher
cost, weight and volume, lower speed range and slower dynamic response.

● The CSI drive is not suitable for multimotor drives. Hence, each motor is fed from its own
inverter and rectifier. A single converter can be used to feed a number of VSI motor systems
connected in parallel. A single VSI can similarly feed a number of motors connected in
parallel.

ENERGY SAVING WITH VFD

Rising energy prices create a need for energy-efficient motor control solutions. To help
reduce energy losses, process engineers are turning to variable frequency drives (or
adjustable speed drives) as an alternative to fixed speed controllers and throttling devices
such as dampers and valves.
Advancements in drive technology, careful selection of the hardware and power system
configuration, and intelligent motor control strategies produce improved operating
performance, control capability and energy savings.
Things to consider when choosing a motor control solution include peak-demand charges,
operating at optimized efficiency, power factor, isolation transformer cost and losses,
regeneration capabilities, synchronous transfer options and specialized intelligent motor
control energy-saving features.

Optimize Power Usage:

Centrifugal loads offer the greatest potential for energy savings by using variable frequency
drives (VFDs) to control speed. Energy consumption in centrifugal fan and pump
applications follows the affinity laws, which means that flow is proportional to speed,
pressure is proportional to the square of speed, and horsepower is proportional to the cube of
speed. That means if an application only needs 80 percent flow, the fan or pump will run at
80 percent of rated speed and only requires 50 percent of rated power. In other words,
reducing speed by 20 percent requires only 50 percent of the power.

Beat peak-demand charges

VFDs also affect peak-demand electricity prices that the utility charges to companies that
exceed a preset limit, such as when industrial motors started across-the-line draw large peaks
of current. VFDs help reduce the peaks by supplying the power needed by the specific
application, and gradually ramping the motor up to speed to reduce the current drawn

● Power Factor

Power factor and how it affects displacement and harmonic distortion is another important
consideration in drive selection. Drives that are near-unity true power factor translate to
reduced energy use.
[Link]
● Regeneration

Some VFD applications enable users not only to save energy, but to regenerate power, which
can be routed back to the system or sold to a utility for additional revenue..

● Multiple Motors drive

Another way to reduce energy costs is the synchronous bypass method which uses only one
VFD to start and synchronize multiple motors by transferring a load from one source to
another by matching the voltage waveform frequency, amplitude and phase relation between
the two sources. Using a VFD to start a motor, bring it up to speed and then synchronize it,
causes a reduction in full-load current and optimizes the process.

● Extra Energy-Saving Potential

Intelligent motor control solutions including high-efficiency variable frequency drives are an
important part of an energy savings program. But not all drives have the same capabilities.
Software features and programmability can further contribute to a drive‟s energy savings
potential by reducing inrush current requirements.
Programmability - Users can program their VFD to adjust the total acceleration time and
current limit and adjust the speed to the load requirement. Current limit on drives is normally
set between 105 and 110 percent, whereas using the across-the-line starting method produces
current limits of approximately 650 percent.

[Link]
 APPLICATIONS

The three major areas where drives and motor are applied are

Variable torque application – When a low torque is needed at low speed and high torque at
high speed. These applications are generally centrifugal loads such as fans, pumps and
blowers. These are good targets of energy savings.

Constant power application – When a high torque is required at low speed and low torque
at high speed. It includes machine tools and traction.

Constant torque application- When the same amount of torque is required at low speed as
at high speed. Power is directly proportional to speed. They include conveyors, mixers,
screw feeders, extruders and positive displacement pumps.
Lifts – Energy saving when regenerative breaking is involved.
Transport- Where all the vehicles, train, ship etc involves motor, VFDs are used for speed
control.

The latest developments in technology and successful development of electronic drives

(AC drives) for cage motors have resulted in the following benefits:
1 Availability of full load torque from standstill
2 Absence of torque fluctuations at low speed.
3 Ability to hold a set speed, regardless of load torque variation
4 Ability to control the rate of increase & decrease of speed
5 Dynamic response.

[Link]
 ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS

Advantages:

● Precise speed and torque control

● Wide speed control torque

● High reliability and availability

● Low audible noise

● Capability of speed reversal / regenerative breaking

● Flux optimization

● Power loss ride through

● Energy saving and Soft starting

Limitations:

● AC drives not reliable as dc drives

● Cost of AC drives are more

● Presence of harmonics may heat the motor

● Separate filter circuits may be required to reduce harmonics

[Link]
 CONCLUSIONS

For precise process control and wide speed range, to provide good running and transient
performances variable frequency drives are natural choice. The report describes functioning
of such a drive. It is very essential to know the applications of them. The consumer is using
them enormous. Hence, this paper concludes that variable frequency drive plays an in
important role in speed control of ac electric motors and also VFDs are simple, reduced
thermal stress on motor, most energy efficient, reduced noise levels, energy savings, soft
starting and stopping are the key features of the VFD.

[Link]
 REFERENCES:

[1] Gopal [Link], Fundamentals of electrical drives, , Narosa Publishing house, II edition

[2] Bimal K Bose, Modern power electronics and AC drives

[3] [Link]

[4] ][Link]

[5] [Link]

[Link]