8/5/25 11:00 AM

Skip to main content

Anatomy and Physiology II

Mo

Skip to main content

Anatomy and Physiology II

Module 7: The Digestive System
Chemical Digestion and Absorption: A Closer Look
Learning Objectives
By the end of this section, you will be able to:

Identify the locations and primary secretions involved in the chemical

digestion of carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids
Compare and contrast absorption of the hydrophilic and hydrophobic
nutrients
As you have learned, the process of mechanical digestion is relatively
simple. It involves the physical breakdown of food but does not alter its
chemical makeup. Chemical digestion, on the other hand, is a complex
process that reduces food into its chemical building blocks, which are
then absorbed to nourish the cells of the body. In this section, you will
look more closely at the processes of chemical digestion and
absorption.

This diagram identifies the functions of mechanical and chemical

digestion and absorption at each organ. Next to each organ, a callout
identifies which steps of digestion take place in that particular organ.
Figure 1. Digestion begins in the mouth and continues as food travels
through the small intestine. Most absorption occurs in the small
intestine.

Chemical Digestion
Large food molecules (for example, proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, and
starches) must be broken down into subunits that are small enough to
be absorbed by the lining of the alimentary canal. This is accomplished
by enzymes through hydrolysis. The many enzymes involved in
chemical digestion are summarized in Table 1.

Table 1. The Digestive Enzymes

Enzyme Category Enzyme Name Source Substrate Product
Salivary Enzymes Lingual lipaseLingual glands Triglycerides Free
fatty acids, and mono- and diglycerides

Salivary Enzymes Salivary amylase Salivary glands

Polysaccharides Disaccharides and trisaccharides.

Gastric enzymes Gastric lipase Chief cells Triglycerides Fatty acids and
monoacylglycerides

Gastric enzymes Pepsin* Chief cells Proteins Peptides

Brush border enzymes α-Dextrinase Small intestine α-Dextrins
Glucose
Brush border enzymes Enteropeptidase Small intestine Trypsinogen
Trypsin
Brush border enzymes Lactase Small intestine Lactose Glucose and
galactose
Brush border enzymes Maltase Small intestine Maltose Glucose
Brush border enzymes Nucleosidases and phosphatases Small
intestine Nucleotides Phosphates, nitrogenous bases, and pentoses
Brush border enzymes Peptidases Small intestine
Aminopeptidase: amino acids at the amino end of peptides
Dipeptidase: dipeptides
Aminopeptidase: amino acids and peptides
Dipeptidase: amino acids
Brush border enzymes Sucrase Small intestine Sucrose Glucose and
fructose
Pancreatic enzymes Carboxy-peptidase* Pancreatic acinar cellsAmino
acids at the carboxyl end of peptidesAmino acids and peptides
Pancreatic enzymes Chymotrypsin* Pancreatic acinar cellsProteins
Peptides
Pancreatic enzymes Elastase* Pancreatic acinar cellsProteins
Peptides
Pancreatic enzymes Nucleases Pancreatic acinar cells
Ribonuclease: ribonucleic acids
Deoxyribonuclease: deoxyribonucleic
acids
Nucleotides
Pancreatic enzymes Pancreatic amylasePancreatic acinar cells
Polysaccharides (starches) α-Dextrins, disaccharides (maltose),
trisaccharides (maltotriose)
Pancreatic enzymes Pancreatic lipase Pancreatic acinar cells
Triglycerides that have been emulsified by bile salts Fatty acids and
monoacylglycerides
Pancreatic enzymes Trypsin*Pancreatic acinar cellsProteins Peptides
*These enzymes have been activated by other substances.

Carbohydrate Digestion
The average American diet is about 50 percent carbohydrates, which
may be classified according to the number of monomers they contain of
simple sugars (monosaccharides and disaccharides) and/or complex
sugars (polysaccharides). Glucose, galactose, and fructose are the three
monosaccharides that are commonly consumed and are readily
absorbed. Your digestive system is also able to break down the
disaccharide sucrose (regular table sugar: glucose + fructose), lactose
(milk sugar: glucose + galactose), and maltose (grain sugar: glucose +
glucose), and the polysaccharides glycogen and starch (chains of
monosaccharides). Your bodies do not produce enzymes that can break
down most fibrous polysaccharides, such as cellulose. While
indigestible polysaccharides do not provide any nutritional value, they
do provide dietary fiber, which helps propel food through the alimentary
canal.

The chemical digestion of starches begins in the mouth and has been
reviewed above.

In the small intestine, pancreatic amylase does the ‘heavy lifting’ for
starch and carbohydrate digestion (Figure 2). After amylases break
down starch into smaller fragments, the brush border enzyme
α-dextrinase starts working on α-dextrin, breaking off one glucose unit at
a time. Three brush border enzymes hydrolyze sucrose, lactose, and
maltose into monosaccharides. Sucrase splits sucrose into one
molecule of fructose and one molecule of glucose; maltase breaks
down maltose and maltotriose into two and three glucose molecules,
respectively; and lactase breaks down lactose into one molecule of
glucose and one molecule of galactose. Insufficient lactase can lead to
lactose intolerance.

This flow chart shows the steps in digestion of carbohydrates. The

different levels shown are starch and glycogen, disaccharides and
monosaccharides. Under each type of sugar, examples and the enzymes
responsible for digestion are listed.
Figure 2. Carbohydrates are broken down into their monomers in a series
of steps.

Protein Digestion
Proteins are polymers composed of amino acids linked by peptide
bonds to form long chains. Digestion reduces them to their constituent
amino acids. You usually consume about 15 to 20 percent of your total
calorie intake as protein.

The digestion of protein starts in the stomach, where HCl and pepsin
break proteins into smaller polypeptides, which then travel to the small
intestine. Chemical digestion in the small intestine is continued by
pancreatic enzymes, including chymotrypsin and trypsin, each of which
act on specific bonds in amino acid sequences. At the same time, the
cells of the brush border secrete enzymes such as aminopeptidase and
dipeptidase, which further break down peptide chains. This results in
molecules small enough to enter the bloodstream.

This diagrams shows the human digestive system and identifies the role
of each organ in protein digestion. A text call-out next to each organ
details the specific function.
Figure 3. The digestion of protein begins in the stomach and is
completed in the small intestine.

This flow chart shows the different steps in the digestion of protein. The
four steps shown are protein, large polypeptides, short peptides and
amino acids and amino acids.
Figure 4. Proteins are successively broken down into their amino acid
components.

Lipid Digestion
A healthy diet limits lipid intake to 35 percent of total calorie intake. The
most common dietary lipids are triglycerides, which are made up of a
glycerol molecule bound to three fatty acid chains. Small amounts of
dietary cholesterol and phospholipids are also consumed.

The three lipases responsible for lipid digestion are lingual lipase,
gastric lipase, and pancreatic lipase. However, because the pancreas is
the only consequential source of lipase, virtually all lipid digestion
occurs in the small intestine. Pancreatic lipase breaks down each
triglyceride into two free fatty acids and a monoglyceride. The fatty
acids include both short-chain (less than 10 to 12 carbons) and
long-chain fatty acids.

Nucleic Acid Digestion

The nucleic acids DNA and RNA are found in most of the foods you eat.
Two types of pancreatic nuclease are responsible for their digestion:
deoxyribonuclease, which digests DNA, and ribonuclease, which digests
RNA. The nucleotides produced by this digestion are further broken
down by two intestinal brush border enzymes (nucleosidase and
phosphatase) into pentoses, phosphates, and nitrogenous bases, which
can be absorbed through the alimentary canal wall. The large food
molecules that must be broken down into subunits are summarized in
Table 2.

Table 2. Absorbable Food Substances

Source Substance
Carbohydrates Monosaccharides: glucose, galactose, and fructose
Proteins Single amino acids, dipeptides, and tripeptides
Triglycerides Monoacylglycerides, glycerol, and free fatty acids
Nucleic acids Pentose sugars, phosphates, and nitrogenous bases
Absorption
The mechanical and digestive processes have one goal: to convert food
into molecules small enough to be absorbed by the epithelial cells of the
intestinal villi. The absorptive capacity of the alimentary canal is almost
endless. Each day, the alimentary canal processes up to 10 liters of
food, liquids, and GI secretions, yet less than one liter enters the large
intestine. Almost all ingested food, 80 percent of electrolytes, and 90
percent of water are absorbed in the small intestine. Although the entire
small intestine is involved in the absorption of water and lipids, most
absorption of carbohydrates and proteins occurs in the jejunum.
Notably, bile salts and vitamin B12 are absorbed in the terminal ileum.
By the time chyme passes from the ileum into the large intestine, it is
essentially indigestible food residue (mainly plant fibers like cellulose),
some water, and millions of bacteria.

This image shows the human digestive system. Next to each organ, a
text callout identifies how water and digestive secretions such as saliva
and bile are processed.
Figure 5. Absorption is a complex process, in which nutrients from
digested food are harvested.

Absorption can occur through five mechanisms: (1) active transport, (2)
passive diffusion, (3) facilitated diffusion, (4) co-transport (or secondary
active transport), and (5) endocytosis. As you will recall from Chapter 3,
active transport refers to the movement of a substance across a cell
membrane going from an area of lower concentration to an area of
higher concentration (up the concentration gradient). In this type of
transport, proteins within the cell membrane act as “pumps,” using
cellular energy (ATP) to move the substance. Passive diffusion refers to
the movement of substances from an area of higher concentration to an
area of lower concentration, while facilitated diffusion refers to the
movement of substances from an area of higher to an area of lower
concentration using a carrier protein in the cell membrane. Co-transport
uses the movement of one molecule through the membrane from higher
to lower concentration to power the movement of another from lower to
higher. Finally, endocytosis is a transportation process in which the cell
membrane engulfs material. It requires energy, generally in the form of
ATP.

Because the cell’s plasma membrane is made up of hydrophobic

phospholipids, water-soluble nutrients must use transport molecules
embedded in the membrane to enter cells. Moreover, substances cannot
pass between the epithelial cells of the intestinal mucosa because these
cells are bound together by tight junctions. Thus, substances can only
enter blood capillaries by passing through the apical surfaces of
epithelial cells and into the interstitial fluid. Water-soluble nutrients enter
the capillary blood in the villi and travel to the liver via the hepatic portal
vein.

In contrast to the water-soluble nutrients, lipid-soluble nutrients can

diffuse through the plasma membrane. Once inside the cell, they are
packaged for transport via the base of the cell and then enter the
lacteals of the villi to be transported by lymphatic vessels to the
systemic circulation via the thoracic duct. The absorption of most
nutrients through the mucosa of the intestinal villi requires active
transport fueled by ATP. The routes of absorption for each food
category are summarized in Table 3.

Table 3. Absorption in the Alimentary Canal

Food Breakdown products Absorption mechanism Entry to
bloodstream Destination
Carbohydrates Glucose Co-transport with sodium ions Capillary blood
in villi Liver via hepatic portal vein
Carbohydrates Galactose Co-transport with sodium ions Capillary
blood in villi Liver via hepatic portal vein
Carbohydrates Fructose Facilitated diffusion Capillary blood in
villi Liver via hepatic portal vein
Protein Amino acids Co-transport with sodium ions Capillary blood in
villi Liver via hepatic portal vein
Lipids Long-chain fatty acids Diffusion into intestinal cells, where they
are combined with proteins to create chylomicrons Lacteals of villi
Systemic circulation via lymph entering thoracic duct
Lipids Monoacylglycerides Diffusion into intestinal cells, where they
are combined with proteins to create chylomicrons Lacteals of villi
Systemic circulation via lymph entering thoracic duct
Lipids Short-chain fatty acids Simple diffusion Capillary blood in
villi Liver via hepatic portal vein
Lipids Glycerol Simple diffusion Capillary blood in villi Liver via
hepatic portal vein
Lipids Nucleic acid digestion products Active transport via
membrane carriers Capillary blood in villi Liver via hepatic portal vein
Carbohydrate Absorption
All carbohydrates are absorbed in the form of monosaccharides. The
small intestine is highly efficient at this, absorbing monosaccharides at
an estimated rate of 120 grams per hour. All normally digested dietary
carbohydrates are absorbed; indigestible fibers are eliminated in the
feces. The monosaccharides glucose and galactose are transported into
the epithelial cells by common protein carriers via secondary active
transport (that is, co-transport with sodium ions). The monosaccharides
leave these cells via facilitated diffusion and enter the capillaries
through intercellular clefts. The monosaccharide fructose (which is in
fruit) is absorbed and transported by facilitated diffusion alone. The
monosaccharides combine with the transport proteins immediately after
the disaccharides are broken down.

Protein Absorption
Active transport mechanisms, primarily in the duodenum and jejunum,
absorb most proteins as their breakdown products, amino acids. Almost
all (95 to 98 percent) protein is digested and absorbed in the small
intestine. The type of carrier that transports an amino acid varies. Most
carriers are linked to the active transport of sodium. Short chains of two
amino acids (dipeptides) or three amino acids (tripeptides) are also
transported actively. However, after they enter the absorptive epithelial
cells, they are broken down into their amino acids before leaving the cell
and entering the capillary blood via diffusion.

Lipid Absorption
About 95 percent of lipids are absorbed in the small intestine. Bile salts
not only speed up lipid digestion, they are also essential to the
absorption of the end products of lipid digestion. Short-chain fatty acids
are relatively water soluble and can enter the absorptive cells
(enterocytes) directly. Despite being hydrophobic, the small size of
short-chain fatty acids enables them to be absorbed by enterocytes via
simple diffusion, and then take the same path as monosaccharides and
amino acids into the blood capillary of a villus.

The large and hydrophobic long-chain fatty acids and

monoacylglycerides are not so easily suspended in the watery intestinal
chyme. However, bile salts and lecithin resolve this issue by enclosing
them in a micelle, which is a tiny sphere with polar (hydrophilic) ends
facing the watery environment and hydrophobic tails turned to the
interior, creating a receptive environment for the long-chain fatty acids.
The core also includes cholesterol and fat-soluble vitamins. Without
micelles, lipids would sit on the surface of chyme and never come in
contact with the absorptive surfaces of the epithelial cells. Micelles can
easily squeeze between microvilli and get very near the luminal cell
surface. At this point, lipid substances exit the micelle and are absorbed
via simple diffusion.

The free fatty acids and monoacylglycerides that enter the epithelial
cells are reincorporated into triglycerides. The triglycerides are mixed
with phospholipids and cholesterol, and surrounded with a protein coat.
This new complex, called a chylomicron, is a water-soluble lipoprotein.
After being processed by the Golgi apparatus, chylomicrons are released
from the cell. Too big to pass through the basement membranes of
blood capillaries, chylomicrons instead enter the large pores of lacteals.
The lacteals come together to form the lymphatic vessels. The
chylomicrons are transported in the lymphatic vessels and empty
through the thoracic duct into the subclavian vein of the circulatory
system. Once in the bloodstream, the enzyme lipoprotein lipase breaks
down the triglycerides of the chylomicrons into free fatty acids and
glycerol. These breakdown products then pass through capillary walls to
be used for energy by cells or stored in adipose tissue as fat. Liver cells
combine the remaining chylomicron remnants with proteins, forming
lipoproteins that transport cholesterol in the blood.

This diagram shows how lipids are absorbed from the lumen of the
intestine into the lacteals. The fatty acid micelles are shown to enter the
epithelial cell and form chylomicrons inside the Golgi apparatus. Then,
the chylomicrons are extruded from the epithelial cell and are taken up
by the lacteals.
Figure 6. Unlike amino acids and simple sugars, lipids are transformed
as they are absorbed through epithelial cells.

Nucleic Acid Absorption

The products of nucleic acid digestion—pentose sugars, nitrogenous
bases, and phosphate ions—are transported by carriers across the villus
epithelium via active transport. These products then enter the
bloodstream.
Mineral Absorption
The electrolytes absorbed by the small intestine are from both GI
secretions and ingested foods. Since electrolytes dissociate into ions in
water, most are absorbed via active transport throughout the entire
small intestine. During absorption, co-transport mechanisms result in
the accumulation of sodium ions inside the cells, whereas anti-port
mechanisms reduce the potassium ion concentration inside the cells. To
restore the sodium-potassium gradient across the cell membrane, a
sodium-potassium pump requiring ATP pumps sodium out and
potassium in.

In general, all minerals that enter the intestine are absorbed, whether you
need them or not. Iron and calcium are exceptions; they are absorbed in
the duodenum in amounts that meet the body’s current requirements, as
follows:

Iron—The ionic iron needed for the production of hemoglobin is

absorbed into mucosal cells via active transport. Once inside mucosal
cells, ionic iron binds to the protein ferritin, creating iron-ferritin
complexes that store iron until needed. When the body has enough iron,
most of the stored iron is lost when worn-out epithelial cells slough off.
When the body needs iron because, for example, it is lost during acute or
chronic bleeding, there is increased uptake of iron from the intestine and
accelerated release of iron into the bloodstream. Since women
experience significant iron loss during menstruation, they have around
four times as many iron transport proteins in their intestinal epithelial
cells as do men.

Calcium—Blood levels of ionic calcium determine the absorption of

dietary calcium. When blood levels of ionic calcium drop, parathyroid
hormone (PTH) secreted by the parathyroid glands stimulates the
release of calcium ions from bone matrices and increases the
reabsorption of calcium by the kidneys. PTH also upregulates the
activation of vitamin D in the kidney, which then facilitates intestinal
calcium ion absorption.

Vitamin Absorption
The small intestine absorbs the vitamins that occur naturally in food
and supplements. Fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K) are absorbed
along with dietary lipids in micelles via simple diffusion. This is why
you are advised to eat some fatty foods when you take fat-soluble
vitamin supplements. Most water-soluble vitamins (including most B
vitamins an