Lecture: Introduction to Fire and Fire Fighting
Fire accidents can cause serious losses in many ways. They can destroy property, such as
homes, factories, and valuable equipment. Fires often lead to injuries or loss of life, especially if
people are trapped or exposed to smoke and flames. Businesses may suffer financial losses due
to damage, downtime, or legal issues. Fires can also cause environmental harm, such as air
pollution or water contamination from firefighting chemicals. Overall, fire accidents can have a
long-lasting impact on people, property, and the environment.
Fire accidents cause serious damage across different sectors. In the industrial and manufacturing
sector in the U.S, fires are responsible for about 16% of civilian injuries and 38% of direct property
damage. The residential sector saw around 352,000 fires in 2023, resulting in nearly $11.4 billion
in property loss. In the commercial sector, there were 118,000 fires, causing about $3.3 billion in
damage. Vehicle fires were also common, with 210,500 cases in 2023, leading to around $2.6
billion in losses. Wildfires and outdoor fires burned over 1.1 million acres across the U.S. in 2025.
With respect to Pakistan, in 2012, two major factory fires broke out, one in Karachi and the other
in Lahore. These fires were extremely deadly and caused the deaths of over 300 workers. Many
people were trapped inside the buildings because of locked exits, poor safety measures, and lack
of emergency planning. This tragic event showed how dangerous workplaces can be without
proper fire safety systems, like fire alarms, emergency exits, and training. It led to strong calls for
better safety laws and inspections in factories to protect workers' lives.
1 What is Fire
Definition: A rapid oxidation process, which is a chemical reaction resulting in the release of heat
and light. Oxidation of the fuel refers to the chemical reaction in which a fuel (typically containing
carbon and hydrogen) reacts with an oxidizing agent, usually oxygen (O₂) from the air, to release
energy in the form of heat and/or light. This process is central to combustion.
In oxidation, the fuel molecules lose electrons (are "oxidized"), and oxygen molecules gain
electrons (are "reduced"). This electron transfer leads to the formation of oxidation products,
primarily CO2 and H2O.
Common Example: Complete Combustion of Hydrocarbon, i.e. CH4 + O2 → CO2 + H2O + Energy
Combustion: Exothermic reaction between fuel and an oxidizing agent. An oxidizing agent takes
electrons from another substance. It gets reduced when it gains electrons. It causes oxidation to
happen to the other substance.
Finally, flame is a visible, gaseous part of a fire.
2 The Fire Triangle
Fire needs three essential elements to start and continue burning: fuel, heat, and oxygen. Fuel is
any material that can catch fire, like wood, paper, or gasoline. Heat is the ignition source, such as
a spark, flame, or high temperature, that starts the burning process. Oxygen, usually from the air,
must be present in a concentration of at least 16% to support combustion. If any one of these
three elements is removed, the fire will go out. For example, when firefighters spray water on a
burning object, the water cools it down and removes the heat, which helps to stop the fire.
Thus, removing any one of these elements will extinguish the fire. The fire triangle is a simple way
to understand the three things a fire needs to ignite and keep burning: fuel, heat, and oxygen. All
three elements must be present at the same time for a fire to start. If even one of them is missing,
a fire cannot occur.
Fuel is any material that can burn, such as wood, paper, fabric, or gasoline. Heat is the source
that raises the temperature of the fuel to its ignition point, like a match, spark, or hot surface.
Oxygen supports the chemical reaction of burning and usually comes from the air, which contains
about 21% oxygen.
For example, imagine you are trying to start a campfire. You have dry wood (fuel), you strike a
match (heat), and the fire burns in the open air (oxygen). If you pour water on the fire, you remove
the heat and the fire goes out. Or, if you cover the fire with a fire blanket, you block the oxygen
and the fire is extinguished. This shows how removing just one part of the fire triangle can stop
the fire
Figure 1: Fire triangle
Now the ignition point (also called the kindling point) is the lowest temperature at which a material
catches fire and starts to burn. At this temperature, the material becomes hot enough to react with
oxygen in the air and produce flames.
For example, paper has an ignition point of about 230°C (446°F). If you hold paper near a candle
flame, it heats up. When it reaches its ignition point, it suddenly catches fire and starts burning. If
the paper never gets hot enough, it will only turn brown or smoke, but not burn. So, the ignition
point is the critical temperature needed to start a fire.
A table showing the ignition points (approximate values) of various common substances
Substance Ignition Point (°C) Ignition Point (°F)
Paper 230 °C 446 °F
Gasoline -45 °C -49 °F
Wood (dry) 300 °C 572 °F
Diesel 210 °C 410 °F
Kerosene 220 °C 428 °F
Cooking Oil (vegetable) 327 °C 620 °F
Ethanol (alcohol) 365 °C 689 °F
Propane 470 °C 878 °F
Natural Gas (Methane) 580 °C 1,076 °F
Charcoal 660 °C 1,220 °F
The temperature of a burning matchstick flame typically reaches about 600 °C to 800 °C. The
match head contains chemicals like potassium chlorate and sulfur, which ignite from the friction.
Once ignited, the wood of the matchstick continues to burn, producing a small, hot flame.
3 Fire Tetrahedron:
Adds the chemical chain reaction as the fourth element. This model explains that fire is not just a
combination of fuel, heat, and oxygen, but also a chemical process. The fire tetrahedron is an
extended version of the fire triangle. It includes a fourth element: the chemical chain reaction, in
addition to the original three, i.e. fuel, heat, and oxygen. All four elements must be present for a
fire to start and keep burning.
This information is useful to understand how modern fire suppressants work. Chemical reaction
refers to the ongoing microscopic reactions between free radicals (highly reactive atoms or
molecules) produced during combustion. These reactions sustain the fire by continuing to release
energy and produce more radicals.
Figure 2: Fire tetrahedron
The fire tetrahedron is a simple way to understand what keeps a fire burning. It shows that four
things are needed for a fire to start and continue: fuel, heat, oxygen, and a chemical chain
reaction. Fuel is any material that can burn, like wood, paper, or gasoline. Heat is what starts the
fire by raising the fuel temperature. Oxygen, usually from the air, helps the fuel burn. The fourth
part, the chemical chain reaction, is what keeps the fire going once it has started like a loop of
reactions that keeps producing heat and flames. If you take away any one of these four parts, the
fire will stop. For example, using water removes heat, foam cuts off oxygen, and certain fire
extinguishers stop the chemical reaction. This model helps firefighters and safety professionals
understand how to prevent and fight fires more effectively.
For example, you are cooking with oil, and a fire starts in the pan. If you spray a dry chemical fire
extinguisher (like ABC powder), it releases fine particles that coat the burning oil. These particles
block the reaction between the fuel and oxygen and stop the chain reaction that is producing the
flames.
4 Classes of Fire:
Class Type of Fire Examples
A Ordinary combustibles Wood, paper, cloth
B Flammable liquids/gases Petrol, oil, paints
C Electrical fires Wiring, appliances
D Combustible metals Magnesium, sodium
K/F Cooking oils/fats (kitchen fires) Deep fryers
5 Methods of Fire Extinguishment
There are four main ways to stop a fire. Cooling, such as using water, removes heat from the fire
and lowers the temperature below the ignition point. Smothering cuts off the oxygen supply by
covering the fire with materials like foam or carbon dioxide (CO₂), which prevents the fire from
breathing. Starvation means removing the fuel source so there’s nothing left to burn. Lastly,
breaking the chemical chain reaction uses special agents like dry chemicals or Halon substitutes
to stop the fire at the molecular level, even if fuel, heat, and oxygen are still present.
Halon substitutes are fire-extinguishing agents that are used in place of Halon gases, which were
once popular but are now largely banned due to their harmful effects on the ozone layer.
6 Types of Fire Extinguishers
Type Suitable For Mechanism
Water Class A Cooling
Foam A, B Cooling & smothering
CO₂ B, C Smothering & nonconductive
Dry Chemical (ABC) A, B, C Disrupts chain reaction
Wet Chemical K/F Cooling & prevents re-ignition
Class D powders (non- D Specific to metal
reactive with alkali metals)
7 Fire Prevention Measures
Electrical systems must be regularly inspected to catch any faulty wiring or overloaded circuits
that could spark a fire. Waste materials, especially oily rags or paper, should be disposed of
properly to avoid accidental ignition. It is also important to have fire alarms and sprinklers installed
to detect and control fires early.
Finally, fire drills and safety training help people know what to do in case of a fire. For example, a
school that practices fire drills and keeps its electrical equipment checked is much better prepared
to prevent and handle fires
8 Basics of Fire Fighting Techniques
In case of a fire, it is important to know how to use a fire extinguisher and follow safety steps. The
PASS technique is an easy way to remember how to use an extinguisher: Pull the pin, Aim the
nozzle at the base of the fire, Squeeze the handle, and sweep the spray from side to side until
the fire is out.
Everyone should also know the evacuation procedures, like the nearest exits and where to gather
outside. To help stop the fire from spreading, simple steps like closing doors and using fire
blankets can be very helpful. If there is a lot of smoke, it is important to stay low to the ground
because the cleanest air is near the floor. For example, in a fire drill at school, students are taught
to crawl under smoke and leave calmly through the nearest exit, which prepares them to respond
safely in a real emergency.
9 Emergency Response Plan
During a fire emergency, it's important to have clear steps for everyone to follow. Alarm and
communication protocols help alert people quickly, such as by sounding a fire alarm or using a
loudspeaker. Everyone should know the evacuation routes and where to go after exiting, called
assembly points, to ensure everyone is safe and accounted for.
Fire wardens have special roles, like helping people evacuate and checking that no one is left
behind. There should also be proper coordination with fire services, so firefighters get the right
information when they arrive. For example, in an office building, when the fire alarm rings, people
follow marked exit signs to the parking lot (assembly point), while fire wardens guide them out
and inform the fire department about the situation.
10 Color Codes:
Fire extinguishers come in different types and colors, each designed for specific kinds of fires. A
water extinguisher has a solid red body and is used for Class A fires involving things like wood,
paper, or cloth. It should not be used on electrical or flammable liquid fires.
Figure 3: Fire extinguisher containing water
A foam extinguisher (with a cream label) contains special foam and is suitable for Class A and B
fires, such as burning solids and flammable liquids, but should not be used on electrical or metal
fires.
Figure 4: Extinguisher containing foam.
A CO₂ extinguisher (with a black label) contains carbon dioxide gas and is ideal for electrical and
flammable liquid fires, but it should be avoided in small spaces as it can reduce oxygen and cause
suffocation.
Figure 5: CO2 fire extinguisher
The dry powder extinguisher (with a blue label) works on Class A, B, C, and electrical fires, but it
creates a thick dust cloud, so it's not recommended for enclosed areas.
Figure 6: Dry powder extinguisher
The wet chemical extinguisher (with a yellow label) is specially designed for kitchen fires involving
cooking oils and fats (Class F), and it can also be used on Class A fires with care.
Figure 7: Wet chemical Fire extinguisher
For rare and dangerous metal fires (Class D), there are special extinguishers, usually completely
yellow or marked clearly, that contain powders made to deal with specific metals.
Figure 8: Class D fire extinguisher
11 Types of the firefighting equipment:
11.1 Portable Firefighting Equipment
Portable firefighting equipment refers to small, hand-operated tools that can be easily carried and
used by individuals to combat fires in their early stages. The most common examples are fire
extinguishers and fire blankets. These are designed for quick response and are typically used in
homes, offices, laboratories, and small industrial areas. Fire extinguishers come in various
types—such as water, foam, carbon dioxide (CO₂), and dry chemical powder—each suited for
specific classes of fire. Portable equipment is essential for first-aid fire fighting and can prevent
small fires from growing into major incidents if used promptly and correctly.
11.2 Mobile Firefighting Equipment
Mobile firefighting equipment includes larger tools and systems that can be transported on wheels
or mounted on vehicles, allowing them to be moved closer to the fire scene. Examples include
fire hose trolleys, mobile foam units, portable water pumps, and fire trucks equipped with water
tanks and hoses. These are commonly used in industrial settings, warehouses, airports, and
outdoor facilities where fixed systems may not reach or be effective. Mobile units provide more
fire suppression capacity than portable devices and are crucial for responding to larger or more
complex fires.
11.3 Fixed Firefighting Equipment
Fixed firefighting equipment is permanently installed in buildings or facilities to provide continuous
protection against fire. This includes automatic sprinkler systems, fire hydrant networks, water
mist systems, and gas suppression systems. These systems are designed to activate
automatically or be manually operated in case of a fire. Fixed equipment is widely used in
commercial buildings, factories, hospitals, and high-risk environments like data centers or
chemical storage areas. These systems are highly reliable for large-scale protection and often
form the backbone of a facility’s fire safety strategy