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Design challenges in the renaissance of pumped-storage hydropower to

support the energy transition

Article · July 2025

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Anton J. Schleiss
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IN DEPTH > PUMPED STORAGE 2025 | 02

Design challenges in the renaissance

of pumped-storage hydropower
to support the energy transition
By Anton J. Schleiss

Renaissance of pumped-storage power plants with most of it in China (83%) followed by India (6%) 3. In another
In the last century pumped storage hydropower (PSH) plants 6 countries, between 1000 MW and 4500 MW are under cons-
have been mainly built in combination with large conventional truction namely in Japan, Australia, USA, Indonesia, Philippines
thermal and nuclear power plants producing continuous base and Austria, contributing in total to 10% of the worldwide activity.
load (Fig. 1). During low electricity demand the surplus base Thus, in the near future, already in this decade, the installed
load energy with low market prize was transformed by PSH worldwide PSH capacity will double, revealing the ongoing re-
into peak energy to satisfy high electricity demand in the grid naissance of PSH. Furthermore, in some 50 countries worldwide
at higher market prizes. Thus, pumping occurred typically dur- many PSH projects are at different stages of planning and stu-
ing night and daily off-peak hours of consummation and conse- dies, with a potential of several hundreds of GW installed capacity2.
quently turbine operation during the peak hours of consumption
typically around noon and in the evening. Purpose and benefits of pumped storage hydropower
The role of PSH has significantly changed with the energy What is the purpose and benefit of pumped storage hydropower?
transition towards renewable and low-carbon energy production When asking this question to ChatGPT the following answer
with high penetration of solar and wind power in the grid. PSH could be obtained:
today mainly complements wind and solar by storing the excess
“Pumped storage hydropower (PSH) is a type of hydroelectric
electricity they create and providing the backup for when the
power generation system that plays a critical role in balancing
wind isn’t blowing, and the sun isn’t shining 1. Such periods
the electrical grid, ensuring grid stability, and providing a range
are called in German “Dunkelflaute” (“dark doldrums” in English)
of economic and environmental benefits. Its primary purpose
and can last several days or even more than a week. Without
and benefits include:
an adequate storage back up, which can be ensured by PSH,
the supply safety and grid stability may be endangered during • Energy Storage: PSH facilities store energy by using excess
such “Dunkelflaute” events. electricity, typically during periods of low demand or when
Today the global installed capacity in some 300 PSH stations there is surplus power generation, to pump water from a
is nearly 200 GW with a storage energy of 9000 GWh1, 2 available lower reservoir to an upper reservoir. This stored energy can
or dispatchable at any time. In 2024 almost 155 GW of PSH then be released when demand is high or during peak periods,
capacity were under construction in some 15 countries worldwide effectively acting as a large-scale energy storage system.

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 2025 | 02 IN DEPTH > PUMPED STORAGE

Figure 1 | Pumped storage powerplant Vianden in Luxembourg (total turbine capacity 1300 MW and pump capacity 1040 MW). Lower basin created by the backwater
of 30.5 m high dam of a run-of-river powerplant and asphaltic concrete lined upper basin by a ring embankment dam. [Picture adapted from Vianden visitor centre].

• Grid Balancing and Stability: PSH is known as a grid-balanc- • Economic Benefits: PSH facilities can generate revenue by
ing technology because it can quickly respond to changes participating in electricity markets. They can sell electricity
in electricity demand or supply. When there's a sudden in- at higher prices during peak demand periods, purchase elec-
crease in demand or a drop in power supply (e.g., due to tricity at lower prices during off-peak times, and provide
fluctuations in renewable energy sources like wind and solar), ancillary grid services, such as frequency regulation.
PSH can release stored water to generate electricity within
• Long Lifespan and Reliability: PSH facilities have long life-
minutes, helping to stabilize the grid and prevent blackouts.
spans, often exceeding 50 years, and require relatively low
• Load Shifting: PSH allows for load shifting, where excess maintenance. They are known for their reliability and can
electricity generated during off-peak hours can be stored provide a stable source of electricity for decades.
and then used during peak demand hours, reducing the
• Water Management: PSH facilities can also assist in water
need for additional power generation sources and minimizing
management by regulating the flow of rivers and providing
the reliance on fossil fuels.
water for irrigation, municipal supply, and recreational activi-
• Renewable Integration: PSH is especially valuable in inte- ties, depending on their design.
grating intermittent renewable energy sources, such as wind
Overall, pumped-storage hydropower is a versatile and valuable
and solar, into the grid. It can store excess energy when re
tool for modern energy systems, helping to ensure a reliable
newable sources are producing more electricity than needed
and sustainable energy supply while addressing the challenges
and release it when renewable output is low.
posed by intermittent renewable energy sources and grid fluc-
• Increased Energy Efficiency: PSH systems are highly efficient, tuations.”
with round-trip efficiencies typically exceeding 70-85%. This
This comprehensive answer very well describes the purpose
means that a significant portion of the energy used to pump
and benefits of PSH of pumped-storage hydropower addressing
water uphill is recovered when generating electricity during
the most relevant points.
the downhill flow.

• Reduced Greenhouse Gas Emissions: By helping to integrate Layout options of PSH

more renewable energy sources and reducing the need for The layout options of PSH are mainly defined by the combination
fossil fuel-based peaker plants, PSH contributes to a reduction of different types of lower and upper basin as listed in Table 1.
in greenhouse gas emissions, making it an environmentally Recent new PSH developments in the Alps in Europe have often
friendly energy storage option. connected existing large reservoirs of storage power plants.

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IN DEPTH > PUMPED STORAGE 2025 | 02

Lower basin Upper basin

• Storage hydropower reservoir • Storage hydropower reservoir

• Run-of-river hydropower backwater • Natural lake
• Natural lake • Artificial basin
• Artificial basin • Underground mine cavern
• Underground mine cavern • Open mine pit
• Open mine pit

Table 1 | Table 1: Types of lower and upper basins of PSH

This allows to exchange large volumes of water between the basin on the coast. However, until now only the 30 MW prototy-
two reservoirs allowing long cycles of turbine and pump opera- pe test project Okinawa Yambaru has been built in Japan and
tions. Since the two large reservoirs have significant inflow for operated from 1999 to 2015 to gain knowledge on different
the long-term storage typical seasonal operation, such PSH challenges regarding sea water impact 4, 5, 6. In the EU research
are working as open cycle. In the case of artificial upper and project ALPHEUS an innovative dam design for a low-head sea-
lower basins with no significant inflow the PSH can be considered water pumped hydropower storage in the North Sea has been
as closed cycle. This is also the case if a run-of-river hydropower studied 7, 8. The Atoll like PSH consists of a basin created by a
backwater or a natural lake is serving as a lower basin, but the ring dam in shallow sea from which the water is pumped out
upper reservoir is an artificial reservoir with no inflow (Fig. 1). into the sea and then turbined again back into the basin having
The volume of natural small lakes serving as lower or upper ba- a lower water level.
sin may be increased by dams to allow longer pumped storage In many coastal regions worldwide there have been serious
cycles. In greenfield projects, artificial lower basins are created forest fires over the last years. In such situation a kind of a
in small catchment valleys with dams. Artificial upper basins multi-purpose PSH would be of interest where the upper basin
are arranged on hilltop topographical depressions requiring can serve as pond for extinguishing water reserve with preinstalled
often besides a main dam also additional smaller saddle dams. supply pipes bringing water to critical locations besides serving
Artificial basins may be also created by a combination of exca- as a fill place for fire-fighting helicopters or aircrafts.
vation and ring embankment dam construction. Such basins The selected installed capacity of a new PSH is normally
are normally fully lined either by asphaltic concrete or geomem- based on grid requirements. Then the required storage volumes
branes for tightening purposes, whereas basins created by of the upper and lower basins are given by the desired cycle
dams in valley or depression topography are rarely fully lined. duration. Nowadays the trend is to build PSH which allow cycles
Underground mine caverns and open mine pits can serve as in the range of 24 hours up to 48 hours.
lower or upper basins. However underground mine caverns as The best cycle efficiency of any PSH is obtained by an
upper basins may be rather a rare option. arrangement of upper and lower basin which give the lowest
An idea that has been discussed for some time is for PSH ratio between length of the waterways and the operational head
using as lower basin the sea with an artificial, fully lined upper difference between the two basins.

Figure 2 | Left: Raise-boring equipment at the top of the vertical pressure shaft of Nant de Drance pumped storage powerplant in Switzerland. Right: View into
the concrete lined vertical pressure shaft from the bottom. [Courtesy Anton J. Schleiss].

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 2025 | 02 IN DEPTH > PUMPED STORAGE

Tendencies in alignments of PSH waterways with supplied with a very moderate inflow from small river creeks
not steel-lined vertical shafts which allows a timely first filling of the PSH and the compensation
Parallel to the development of the efficient raise-boring method of evaporation losses. The upper basin is mostly a hilltop arrange-
vertical pressure shafts have been used for about 30 years for ment with in a favorable topographic depression allowing to
the alignment of waterway systems of hydropower power plants create a basin with a main dam and eventually a certain number
(Figure 2.) Such concept has now been used on many hydropower of required smaller saddle dams. Such basins having an irregular
schemes 8. Above all for new underground pumped storage shape according to the prevailing topography and are normally
power plants, there is nowadays a tendency to select a deep left unlined even if their bottom consists of loose soil or rock
alignment of the waterway system which is favorable from the covered by vegetation. Besides the mandatory removal of trees
economical and safety points of view (Figure 3). In fact, compared and wooden material the question arises if there are dispersive
to inclined and steel-lined pressure shafts, vertical shafts have sediments (like lateritic soils) in the basin area which may be
advantages regarding construction time, working safety during diluted even into stagnant water below the minimum operation
excavation, quality of concrete lining due to better compaction level (MOL) of the basin. Furthermore, it should be checked
as well as ease of maintenance. With the raise-boring method, if fine sediments along the shores can be washed out into the
vertical pressure shafts can nowadays be drilled up to 800 m basin due to water level oscillations during pumped storage
in one step10. If the vertical shaft is deep in the rock mass, near operation or due to wave impact and/or rain erosion after the
the upper basin, hydraulic jacking is prevented without needing protective vegetation cover has disappeared. There is also the
a steel liner, provided rock permeability is moderate. Then a question if sediments covering the bottom of the basins can
reinforced concrete lining is sufficient which is designed in order be put into suspension by the internal currents and gyres occur-
to limit crack widths and thus keep water losses below acceptable ing during pumped storage operation. Of course, the areas very
values11. In view of highly increasing steel prices, such a concept close to the intakes and outlets have to be protected against
result in economic and competitive PSH projects. The cost sa- erosion with a lining and/or protecting riprap layers. Finally,
vings could amount to approximately 100 million dollars or more, the concentration of suspended sediments in the water which
depending on the prevailing pressure head in the waterway sys- is transported by the small rivers, gullies and creeks mainly
tem. Furthermore, placing the underground powerhouse close into the lower basins during rain events every year must be
to the bottom of the vertical shaft, the headrace system length assessed carefully over the lifetime of the project. Sediment
with high water pressure can be limited to a minimum which management strategies have to be implemented, for example
allows also to omit an upper surge tank (Figure 4). However, by the venting of turbid water with low level outlets during
depending on the total length of the waterway system a surge floods instead of operating surface spillways only. These issues
tank may be required downstream of the powerhouse at the have to be managed to avoid an increase in the turbidity in both
beginning of the tailrace tunnel. basins with time due pumped storage operation which may
have not only an environmental impact but also risk of abrasion
Some design challenges of hydraulic machinery and clogging of its cooling systems.
Based on my experience gained through the involvement as an Sediment behavior and flow dynamics in unlined basins
expert in several new PSH project, some design challenges are and turbidity risk are strongly influenced by the choice of MOL.
highlighted in the following. The required minimum dead storage respectively the feasible
MOL can be determined by a 3D hydrodynamic numerical mo-
Sediment and flow dynamics in unlined basins and turbidity risk del of the two reservoirs simulating pumping and turbine opera-
New PSH are often planned in the upper part of hilly catchments tion. When approaching MOL, the velocity and turbulence of
with a lower basin created by a dam at a favorable location the water entering from the intake/outlet (Figure 5) into the
regarding available storage volume. The lower basin is then reservoir can be determined. To avoid significant resuspension,

Figure 3 | Schematic longitudinal profile of a typical waterway system of a PSH Figure 4 | Excavation of main machine hall of the underground powerhouse of
with a vertical shaft between the two basins located close to the upper basin. Limmern pumped storage powerplant in Switzerland. [Courtesy Anton J. Schleiss].

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IN DEPTH > PUMPED STORAGE 2025 | 02

the velocities of flow and gyres should be limited below about inertia in the grid as well as fast response. From the point of
0.1 to maximum 0.2 m/s everywhere in the basin outside of the view of structural design of the steel manifold non-symmetrical
erosion-protected area near the intakes/outlets. This gives a bifurcations are also more favorable.
criterion for the minimum required dead storage and respectively
the feasible lowest MOL. With the same numerical simulation, Implications for dam design considering daily significant
the drawdown velocities at the shores can be analyzed when reservoir fluctuations
emptying the reservoirs to MOL, which may also give an addi- For frequent high reservoir fluctuations concrete faced rockfill
tional criterion for the minimum required reservoir surface, i.e. dams (CFRD) and gravity dams by conventional or roller com-
the feasible MOL. Furthermore, the numerical 3D simulations pacted concrete (RCC) are most adequate. Another, potentially
of the two reservoirs will give valuable information on the ade- more cost competitive, option would be the new concept of
quate choice of the geometry and orientation of the intakes Faced Symmetrical Hardfill Dam (FSHD) built with cemented
which create favorable internal currents in the two reservoirs soil rock material with low cement content. Such RCC dam
during pumped-storage operation. Stagnant water zones in the types, conventional RCC with an upstream slope or FSHD with
reservoir with fine sediment deposition should be avoided as lean cemented soil-rock material, are more suitable for unfavor-
well as high velocities near the bottom and along the shores able geological conditions since the loading of the foundation
which risk whirling up already deposited fine sediments. In the is an almost uniform compression for full and empty lake condi-
case of multiple intakes/outlets the interaction of crossing jets tions. Thus, also less creeping of the foundation with frequent
and its potential oscillation may be an issue too. Finally, the significant reservoir level fluctuations has to be expected as
numerical 3D simulations of the two reservoirs can be combined it would occur in a conventional triangular gravity dam profile
with water quality models. having high stresses at the upstream and downstream toe for
Following such numerical analysis, hydraulic model tests empty and full reservoir respectively.
are recommended for the final verification of the intake geometry When defining the required depth of the grout curtain, stan-
including vortex formation. The higher the intake/outlet velocity dard approaches, as those used for conventional reservoirs with
is the higher is the turbulence rate introduced in the basins moderate water level fluctuations, may not apply. For hilltop
and the risk of turbidity and vortex formation. Intake velocities reservoir conditions an appropriate grout curtain depth should
close to 1 m/s have proven to be economical regarding head ensure that seepage from the reservoir, even if very limited,
losses over the project’s lifetime and potential vortex formation cannot reach the free surface at the hill slopes which in the
can be better avoided or handled with mitigation measures. long run may trigger landslides in the case of quite impermeable
covering soils. For this purpose, 3D seepage analysis from the
Bifurcation design considering short circuit-operation reservoir to the hill slopes as a function of the grout curtain
The water from the headrace tunnel and shaft is normally depth is highly recommended. Finally, for CFRD dams, plinth
branched to two up to four pump turbines in the underground width and contact grouting design should also account for high
powerhouse. A symmetrical manifold should be avoided since water level fluctuations changing the seepage below the plinth
the discharge between the branches having the same friction daily.
characteristics, may oscillate significantly due to vortex shedding
at the bifurcation creating problems with machine regulation. First filling of PSH waterways
A non-symmetrical manifold is also more favorable for short During excavation works of the waterway the natural groundwater
circuit operation, that means with a unit pumping and the neigh- level in the rock mass will be drawn down by the effect of drain-
boring unit turbining at the same time to give rotating mass age into the shaft and tunnel. Thus, the first filling of the water-

Figure 5 | Left: Pre-construction of intake/outlet of Nant de Drance pumped storage project in Switzerland at the shore in late summer of the lower Reservoir Emosson.
Right: After floating of the intake structure, implementing it at the portal of the tailrace tunnel early spring when Emosson reservoir is empty. [Courtesy Anton J. Schleiss].

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 2025 | 02 IN DEPTH > PUMPED STORAGE

way has to be done with care in order to ensure that the rock seepage flow at the beginning of each new pressure step should
mass can slowly and uniformly re-saturate, thereby avoiding not exceed the value of the maximum gradient during operation,
overstressing of the concrete lining and the rock mass due to which is defined as the ratio between maximum internal pressure
the high gradient of seepage flow12, 13. This could lead to uncon- head and shortest seepage path towards the rock surface. The
trolled cracking of the lining and even of the rock mass resulting pause between each pressure step is equal to the time needed
in the widening of existing joints with the possibility of washing to saturate the rock mass around the tunnel. After each pressure
out the joint filling material and increasing the permeability step the water level in the shaft should be kept constant until
around the tunnel. Furthermore, the sealing effect of a grouted the water losses attain a nearly steady quantity indicating that
rock zone could be reduced by crack propagation. Thus, the the rock mass saturation is achieved. It may be concluded that
waterway should be filled slowly increasing the pressure with the first filling of PSH waterways is a very critical phase which
steps and saturation pauses in between. The gradient of the needs a carefully planning and monitoring.

References
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Technology Observatory: Hydropower and Pumped Storage Hydropower in the European Union - 2024 Status Report on Technology Development,
Trends, Value Chains and Markets, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, 2024,
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3 | Aqua-Media International (2024). 2024 World Atlas of Hydropower & Dams.

4 | Nakahara, Y.; Ando, Y.; Yoshino, Y.; Kashiwayanagi, M. (2024). Technologies verified by the operation of the seawater pumped storage plant in
Okinawa, Japan. In Proc. HYDRO 2024 – Secure technology for turbulent times, Graz, Austria, 18 to 20 November 2024, Session 19, Paper 02.

5 | Kashiwayanagi, M.; Nakahara, Y.; Ando, Y.; Murayama, H. (2024). The FRP penstock at the Okinawa (Yambaru) seawater pumped storage plant:
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6 | Kashiwayanagi, M. & Tobase, T. (2024). Environmental sustainability of the area around an upper pond of a seawater pumped-storage plant: A
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7 | Bricker, J.; Nilsson, H.; Storli, P.-T.; Truijen, D.; De Kooning, J.; Laguna, A.; Terheiden, K.; Engel, B.; Goseberg, N.; Moll, R. (2023). Grid-scale pumped
hydro energy storage for the low countries. Hydrolink Magazine Vol.2 (2023); [Link]

8 | Jayasinghe, L. S. & Marence, M. (2024). Innovative dam design for low-head seawater pumped hydropower storage in the North Sea. In Proc.
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9 | Schleiss, A.: Triebwassersysteme bei Wasserkraftanlagen – Herausforderungen und Tendenzen für die Linienführung und Auskleidung/Waterway
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12 | Schleiss, A. and Johannesson, P. (1991). Erstfüllung von durchlässigen Druckstollen und Druckschächten. In.: Wittke W. (ed), Proceedings 7. Int.
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Anton J. Schleiss
Dr. Anton J. Schleiss graduated in Civil Engineering from the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH) in Zurich, Switzerland
and obtained a PhD on the topic of pressure tunnel design in 1986. After that he worked for 11 years for Electrowatt Engineer-
ing Ltd. (now AFRY) in Zurich and was involved in the design of many hydropower projects around the world. In 1997, he was
nominated full professor and Director of the Laboratory of Hydraulic Constructions (LCH) at the Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale
de Lausanne (EPFL). He supervised more than 50 PhD and Postdoc research projects and became professor emeritus in
May 2018. After having served as vice-president between 2012 and 2015 he was president of the International Commission
on Large Dams (ICOLD) from 2015 to 2018. For his outstanding contributions to advance the art and science of hydraulic
structures engineering he obtained in 2015 the ASCE-EWRI Hydraulic Structures Medal. The French Hydro Society (SHF)
awarded him with the Grand Prix SHF 2018 and IAHR as honorary member in 2021. In 2024 he was listed by Int. Water Power
& Dam Construction presents among the 75 most influential individuals in the hydropower industry. With more than 40 years
of experience he is regularly involved as a consultant and expert in large water infrastructures projects including hydropower
and dams all over the world. On behalf of ICOLD he is the scientific coordinator of the ETIP HYDROPOWER project funded
by the EU Horizon Europe research and innovation program.

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