Environmental Communication

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The Effects of Environmental Brand Attributes

and Nature Imagery in Green Advertising

Desirée Schmuck, Jörg Matthes, Brigitte Naderer & Maren Beaufort

To cite this article: Desirée Schmuck, Jörg Matthes, Brigitte Naderer & Maren Beaufort (2018)
The Effects of Environmental Brand Attributes and Nature Imagery in Green Advertising,
Environmental Communication, 12:3, 414-429, DOI: 10.1080/17524032.2017.1308401

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ENVIRONMENTAL COMMUNICATION, 2018
VOL. 12, NO. 3, 414–429
[Link]

RESEARCH ARTICLE

The Effects of Environmental Brand Attributes and Nature Imagery

in Green Advertising
Desirée Schmucka, Jörg Matthesa, Brigitte Naderera and Maren Beaufortb
a
Advertising and Media Effects Research Group, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria; bInstitute for Comparative
Media and Communication Studies, Austrian Academy of Sciences, Vienna, Austria

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

Following Hartmann and Apaolaza-Ibáñez’ [(2009). Green advertising Received 18 February 2015
revisited. Conditioning virtual nature experiences. International Journal of Accepted 26 January 2016
Advertising, 28(4), 715–739] approach, this experimental study compares
KEYWORDS
the effects of three types of green print ads: a non-green ad, a functional Green advertising;
green ad promoting environmental product attributes, and a combined environmental brand
nature ad featuring a pleasant nature image in addition to functional attributes; nature imagery;
attributes. We extend prior research by simultaneously testing moderating brand attitude; purchase
and mediating mechanisms to explain brand attitudes and purchase intention
intention. Using a quota sample of 456 consumers, findings suggest that
the functional ad enhances perceptions of environmental brand benefits,
which positively affect purchase intention partially mediated by brand
attitudes. The combined nature ad, by contrast, activates an additional
emotional process of virtually experiencing nature which positively
influences brand attitudes and purchase intention beyond perceptions of
environmental brand benefits. The effects of the combined nature ad are
even stronger for highly involved consumers.

The increasing environmental concern of consumers around the globe has spurred the growth of a
market for green products. Consequently, green advertising has grown exponentially in the past two
decades (Atkinson & Kim, 2015; Futerra, 2008). Advertising plays a critical role in communicating
companies’ and organizations’ pro-environmental images and promoting environmentally friendly
product attributes (Leonidou, Leonidou, Palihawadana, & Hultman, 2011). So-called green ads use
various appeals to persuade consumers to buy products designed to be less harmful to the environ-
ment (Schuhwerk & Lefkoff-Hagius, 1995). Research has identified three major advertising appeals:
(1) functional or fact-based appeals; (2) emotional or image-based appeals; and (3) a combination of
the previous two types of appeals (Hartmann & Apaolaza-Ibáñez, 2009; Hartmann, Apaolaza-Ibá-
ñez, & Sainz, 2005; Matthes, Wonneberger, & Schmuck, 2014).
Hartmann and Apaolaza-Ibáñez (2008, 2009, 2012) have conducted a series of studies to under-
stand the specific effects of these appeals in green advertising, which provided important insights
into the attitudinal outcomes and mediators of green advertising appeals. Yet, there are three aspects
that require further investigation. First, a wealth of research suggests that environmental involve-
ment plays an important role for brand attitudes and purchase intentions of green products (e.g.
Hartmann & Apaolaza-Ibáñez, 2008, 2012; Mohr, Eroglu, & Ellen, 1998). Yet, even though the Elab-
oration-Likelihood Model (ELM; Petty & Cacioppo, 1986) predicts that involvement plays a crucial

CONTACT Desirée Schmuck [Link]@[Link]

© 2017 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives License (http://
[Link]/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/), which permits non-commercial re-use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the
original work is properly cited, and is not altered, transformed, or built upon in any way.
 ENVIRONMENTAL COMMUNICATION 415

role in processing advertising messages, only few studies have experimentally tested how environ-
mental involvement moderates the effects of different green ads on consumers’ responses (see Bick-
art & Ruth, 2012; Matthes et al., 2014; Schuhwerk & Lefkoff-Hagius, 1995). More importantly, there
can be several facets of environmental involvement, such as environmental concern, green product
attitudes, or green purchase behaviour (Matthes et al., 2014). All three are included in the present
study. Second, previous research has established important mediators in the process of green adver-
tising effects such as perceived utilitarian environmental brand benefits and virtual nature experi-
ences (Hartmann & Apaolaza-Ibáñez, 2008, 2009). However, studies have either investigated the
moderators (Hartmann & Apaolaza-Ibáñez, 2008; Matthes et al., 2014) or the mediators (Hartmann
& Apaolaza-Ibáñez, 2009) of green advertising effects, but no experimental study has simultaneously
tested both, the conditions and the underlying processes of the effects of different green ad appeals
on consumers’ attitudinal outcomes.
Third, numerous earlier studies relied on student or convenience samples (e.g. Grimmer & Wool-
ley, 2014; Hartmann et al., 2005; Schuhwerk & Lefkoff-Hagius, 1995; Searles, 2010; Spack, Board,
Crighton, Kostka, & Ivory, 2012). Green consumerism, however, significantly varies by age, edu-
cation, and gender (Atkinson & Kim, 2015; Roberts, 1996; Shrum, McCarty, & Lowrey, 1995), so
student samples lack population validity and are of limited use when investigating the effects of
green advertisements.
Thus, the present study follows Hartmann and Apaolaza-Ibáñez (2009) experimental approach to
investigate the effects of different green ad appeals on brand attitude and purchase intention. Fur-
thermore, it extends this research by proposing a moderated mediation model that simultaneously
examines the mediating processes of green ad effects, such as utilitarian environmental brand
benefits and virtual nature experiences, and the moderating roles of several interrelated green invol-
vement dimensions.

Green advertising appeals

Definitions of green advertising are not straightforward. According to Banerjee, Gulas, and Iyer (1995),
green ads address the relationship between a product or service and the natural environment, advocate
an environmentally responsible lifestyle, and highlight a corporate environmental image or responsi-
bility. Especially in the early stage of green advertising, companies quickly issued green claims that
sometimes included deceptive or confusing truths or even false promises. These misleading or exagger-
ated appeals are called “greenwashing” (Baum, 2012; Plec & Pettenger, 2012). In many countries, con-
sumers have become increasingly sceptical of the credibility of green advertising. Against this
background, many companies are inclined to apply more substantial and less deceptive green claims,
which points to “a more responsible approach to green advertising” (Leonidou et al., 2011, p. 24). For
the purposes of this study, green ads refer to all advertisements that promote environmental sustain-
ability or convey ecological or nature-friendly messages that target the needs of environmentally con-
cerned customers, regulators, and other stakeholders (Leonidou et al., 2011; Zinkhan & Carlson, 1995).
Generally, three main strategies are used in green advertising: functional fact-based appeals;
image-based emotional appeals; or, most frequently, a combination of both. A functional positioning
strategy highlights the relevant utilitarian attributes of a product compared to conventional compet-
ing products (Hartmann et al., 2005). Studies confirm that pointing out the environmentally friendly
attributes of products can affect brand attitudes (Hartmann & Apaolaza-Ibáñez, 2008; Matthes et al.,
2014).
The aim of an emotional positioning appeal is to transfer affective responses to the brand (Searles,
2010). Emotional appeals are image related and usually depict pleasant nature scenery, which might
evoke positive affective responses because of the virtual contact with real-world nature (Hartmann,
Apaolaza, & Alija, 2013; Kaplan, 1995). Several studies have demonstrated significant positive atti-
tudinal effects from emotional appeals in green advertising (Hartmann et al., 2005; Matthes et al.,
2014; Searles, 2010).
416 D. SCHMUCK ET AL.

Finally, a mixed-type positioning strategy combines functional and emotional appeals. Previous
research suggests that this green advertising strategy can achieve the highest attitudinal effects (Hart-
mann et al., 2005; Matthes et al., 2014). Research by Hartmann et al. (2005) and Hartmann and Apao-
laza-Ibáñez (2009, 2012) has identified distinct functional and emotional dimensions of attitude
formation responding to green advertisements. In assessing consumer attitudes evoked by an advertise-
ment, it is important to distinguish between cognitive evaluations and affective responses (see also
Madden, Allen, & Twible, 1988). Cognitive evaluations of green ads entail judgement of whether a
brand has environmentally sound product attributes, while affective responses are feelings experienced
in response to an ad (Searles, 2010). Both the cognitive judgements and the feelings evoked by an ad
have been shown to affect consumers’ evaluation of the brand (Hartmann et al., 2005) and pro-environ-
mental intentions (Hartmann, Apaolaza, D’Souza, Barrutia, & Echebarria, 2014).

Utilitarian environmental benefits

The consumption of products with environmentally sound attributes (e.g. reduced emissions, recycl-
able materials) offers additional benefits for consumers than the purchase of conventional products
(Roberts, 1996). Information regarding environmental brand benefits can be provided through per-
suasive arguments describing a product’s relevant environmental advantages (Hartmann & Apao-
laza-Ibáñez, 2009; Matthes et al., 2014) or through verification seals that refer to a product’s
environmental performance or characteristics such as recyclable materials (Bickart & Ruth, 2012).
Studies show that providing information about ecological product attributes in advertisements
can increase the perception of environmental brand benefits (Hartmann & Apaolaza-Ibáñez,
2009), which can enhance brand attitudes (Hartmann & Apaolaza-Ibáñez, 2008, 2009) and purchase
intention (Hartmann & Apaolaza-Ibáñez, 2012; Roberts, 1996). Drawing from these findings, we
hypothesize that, compared to a conventional ad, a functional green ad, which emphasizes a pro-
duct’s environmental attributes, increases the perception of utilitarian environmental brand benefits
and, thus, the intention to purchase the product advertised.
H1a: Green advertisements featuring environmental brand attributes enhance the perception of utilitarian
environmental brand benefits.

H1b: Perceived utilitarian environmental brand benefits positively influence purchase intention.

In addition to direct effects on purchase intention, Hartmann and Apaolaza-Ibáñez (2012) found
that brand attitude partially mediates the effects of utilitarian environmental brand benefits on pur-
chase intention. Based on their findings, we expect that brand attitudes will partially mediate the
effect of utilitarian environmental brand benefits on purchase intention.
H1c: Brand attitudes partially mediate the effect of a brand’s utilitarian environmental benefits on purchase
intention.

Virtual nature experiences

Visual representations of nature are prominent in many green advertisements. The ecological attri-
butes of a product or brand are often communicated through backgrounds representing pristine,
unspoiled landscapes to evoke the beauty of nature (Hartmann et al., 2013; Hartmann & Apao-
laza-Ibáñez, 2009). These nature images may activate feelings similar to those experienced in actual
contact with nature termed “virtual nature experiences” by Hartmann and Apaolaza-Ibáñez (2008,
p. 821). Hartmann et al. (2013) found that the emotion ratings from study participants exposed to
advertisements with pleasant nature imageries did not significantly differ from the emotional
responses to real nature of participants not exposed to any advertisements. These virtual nature
experience can be explained by a general human need for contact with nature (Hartmann & Apao-
laza-Ibáñez, 2008).
 ENVIRONMENTAL COMMUNICATION 417

If emotional responses to nature imagery are positive, their transfer to brand attitude should be
favourable as well. It has been shown that nature imagery in green ads can evoke positive emotional
responses, which positively influence the formation of brand attitudes (Hartmann & Apaolaza-Ibá-
ñez, 2008, 2009, 2012) and purchase intention (Allen, Machleit, & Kleine, 1992). Hence, we expect
that the effects of virtually experiencing nature directly influence purchase intention partially
mediated by brand attitude.
H2a: Green advertisements featuring pleasant nature imagery, in addition to environmental brand attributes,
enhance the perceived virtual nature experience.

H2b: The perceived virtual nature experience positively influences purchase intention.

H2c: Brand attitudes partially mediate the effect of perceived virtual nature experience on purchase intention.

Exposure to nature images can also exert positive cognitive influences (Hartmann et al., 2013)
and, according to attention restoration theory, improve attention and memory (Kaplan, 1995).
Exposure to pictures of natural landscapes in advertising might have the same effects (Hartmann
et al., 2013). In an eye-tracking study, Hartmann et al. (2013) found that, compared to other images,
nature images resulted in significantly higher attention directed toward the advertising message.
Therefore, we suggest that a green ad featuring pleasant nature imagery and environmental brand
attributes not only enhances the perceived virtual nature experience, but also draws more attention
to the environmental attributes of the brand. As expected in the first hypothesis, greater perception
of utilitarian environmental brand benefits, in turn, positively influences purchase intention, par-
tially mediated by brand attitude.
H3: Green advertisements featuring pleasant nature imagery and environmental brand attributes increase the
perception of utilitarian environmental brand benefits.

As posited in H1b and H1c, such perceived utilitarian benefits directly and indirectly (i.e. via atti-
tude toward the brand) affect purchase intention.

Environmental involvement
Consumers have different knowledge of and commitment to the environment. In this context, three
categorizations of environmental involvement need to be distinguished (for a discussion, see Matthes
et al., 2014; Naderer, Schmuck, & Matthes, 2017). One conceptualization is environmental concern,
which can be described as awareness of environmental problems and perception of the necessity to
protect the environment (Schwartz & Miller, 1991). Second, scholars have conceptualized green
involvement as a general positive attitude toward green products (e.g. Roberts, 1996). A third defi-
nition of highly involved green consumers relies on their self-reported green purchase behaviour
(Chang, 2011; Mohr et al., 1998; Shrum et al., 1995). These three dimensions of environmental invol-
vement are related but have different antecedents and outcomes. Therefore, all three need to be taken
into account when investigating the moderating effect of involvement on green advertising effective-
ness (Matthes et al., 2014).
The ELM (Petty & Cacioppo, 1986) suggests that involvement is a crucial factor in individuals’
motivation to process incoming information. Based on the amount of cognitive elaboration, attitude
formation toward a brand or a product takes place through either central or peripheral persuasion
processes. Depending on the consumer’s environmental involvement level, the attitudinal effects of
perceived product attributes and emotional experiences, therefore, are expected to vary (Hartmann
& Apaolaza-Ibáñez, 2008).
To date, few studies have focused on the moderating role of environmental involvement in con-
sumers’ responses to green ads (but see Bickart & Ruth, 2012; Matthes et al., 2014; Schuhwerk &
Lefkoff-Hagius, 1995). Matthes et al. (2014) systematically investigated the effects of three types
of green ads: a functional ad highlighting environmentally sound product attributes, an emotional
418 D. SCHMUCK ET AL.

ad featuring pleasant nature imagery, and a combination of the two types. The emotional and mixed-
type ads significantly increased brand attitude, regardless of the environmental involvement level.
Involvement moderated the effect only when the ad contained argumentative product appeals but
not nature images. According to the ELM, these ads, which required a higher amount of cognitive
elaboration, were persuasive only to those highly involved with the environment.
Schuhwerk and Lefkoff-Hagius (1995) on the other hand found that green advertising appeals
may be especially persuasive for individuals who do not usually buy green products or express
environmental concern whereas higher involved individuals were intrinsically alert to environmental
attributes of products and expressed high purchase intention for the green product regardless of the
ad appeal (Schuhwerk & Lefkoff-Hagius, 1995).
However, although these studies provided useful insights into the moderating role of environ-
mental involvement, they did not examine processes that might mediate the effects of different ad
appeals on brand attitude or purchase intention.
So far, only the study by Hartmann and Apaolaza-Ibáñez (2008) examined the interaction of
environmental involvement and cognitive and affective processes such as perceived environmental
brand benefits and virtual nature experiences. Their findings revealed that environmental involve-
ment moderated the degree to which virtual nature experiences and environmental brand benefits
influenced brand attitudes. However, this study did not experimentally test the effects of different
green ad appeals and it did not take into account whether environmental involvement contributes
to the formation of virtual nature experience and perceived environmental brand benefits. Although
these processes have been found to significantly impact brand evaluations (Hartmann & Apaolaza-
Ibáñez, 2008, 2009), research lacks an investigation of how they are formed. Given the important role
of environmental involvement in the processing of green advertising, we assume that it also contrib-
utes to the formation of perceived environmental brand benefits and virtual nature experiences in
response to green ad appeals. However, since this moderated mediation has not been demonstrated
before, we formulate a research question:
RQ1: How does environmental involvement moderate the effects of green advertisements on individuals’ per-
ceived utilitarian environmental brand benefits and virtual nature experiences?

Additionally, we investigate which dimensions of green involvement, used in earlier research,

exert the strongest moderating influence on perceived environmental brand benefits and virtual
nature experiences. The dimensions of green involvement usually are highly correlated, so we
again formulate a research question, rather than specific hypotheses.
RQ2: Which dimension of green involvement—environmental concern, attitudes toward green products, or
green purchase behaviour—most strongly moderates the effects of different green ad appeals?

The full theoretical model showing all hypotheses is depicted in Figure 1.1

Method
The present study employed a one-factorial between-subjects design manipulating the ad’s visual
and textual layout. Following previous studies in this field (Hartmann & Apaolaza-Ibáñez, 2009;
Hartmann et al., 2005, 2013), we established three conditions: a control condition, a functional ad
condition, and a combined nature ad condition featuring both pleasant nature imagery and func-
tional attributes. The three dimensions of involvement were measured before ad exposure and trea-
ted as continuous moderators.

Stimulus
Based on Hartmann and Apaolaza-Ibáñez’ study (2009), the present study used three versions of a
print ad for a cell phone under the fictitious brand Eagle Mobile (see Appendix). Participants in the
 ENVIRONMENTAL COMMUNICATION 419

Figure 1. Model for path analysis.

Note: Control variables (age, gender, education, survey mode, and perceived consumer effectiveness), measurement errors, and correlations between
all exogenous variables were omitted from depiction for clarity reasons.

control condition saw the cell phone and the brand name in front of a blank background. In the func-
tional ad condition, participants were shown an ad presenting a slogan, the product, and an environ-
mental brand attribute (sustainability eco-seal). In the combined nature ad condition, participants
saw an ad presenting the same product, environmental brand attribute, slogan, and pleasant nature
imagery. Following previous studies (Hartmann et al., 2005; Matthes et al., 2014), the image showed
a lake surrounded by mountains and forests.

Participants
As argued by Shrum et al. (1995) and others, green consumerism varies significantly by age, education,
and gender; therefore, student samples lack population validity. Thus, a quota sample was obtained from
Austrian consumers ages 16–88 for a survey conducted from December 2012 to February 2013. The
quota was based on the demographic characteristics of the general public in Austria, specifically age
(M = 45.1, SD = 17.7), gender (53% female), and education level (18.5% compulsory schooling, 58.0%
completed apprenticeship, 13.8% qualification for university entrance, 9.7% college degree). Compared
to the actual population distribution, participants with compulsory school level were slightly underre-
presented and participants who completed apprenticeship were slightly overrepresented in the sample.
The participants’ recruitment was based on a quota plan. The study was part of an advanced research
class. Students helped to recruit the sample. The survey was conducted both online and in paper to
reach older participants. The survey mode was included as a control variable in every statistical analysis.
One hundred and thirty-one participants filled out paper and pencil questionnaires and 325 participated
online. In total, 1005 participants were contacted, 248 refused to participate and 301 were screened out
because their quota was already fulfilled, resulting in a total sample of N = 456.

Measures
This survey was part of a larger study. Only measurements relevant to the topic discussed in the
paper are presented here. The full questionnaire is available from the authors upon request. Assign-
ment to one of the three conditions was the independent measure in our design. To model the exper-
imental conditions in path analysis, two dummy coded variables were created.
All survey items are listed in the appendix. Five items employing a 7-point semantic differential
scale assessed attitude toward the brand (Cronbach’s α = .94; M = 4.08; SD = 1.39). Purchase
420 D. SCHMUCK ET AL.

intention was measured by a single 7-point scale item (M = 2.4; SD = 1.6). All items used to create the
moderator and mediator variables were tested on a 7-point scale, ranging from 1 = “strongly dis-
agree” to 7 = “strongly agree.” The three dimensions of green involvement were measured as mod-
erators of our model and were captured before ad exposure. Environmental concern was measured
through four items based on Schuhwerk and Lefkoff-Hagius (1995) (Cronbach’s α = .77; M = 5.19;
SD = 1.3); attitude toward green products through four items based on Chang (2011) (Cronbach’s
α = .84; M = 5.05; SD = 1.36); and green purchase behaviour through six items based on Kim and
Choi (2005) (Cronbach’s α = .86; M = 4.76; SD = 1.33). For the mediator variables, we developed
two items assessing perception of utilitarian environmental brand benefits (Cronbach’s α = .92; M
= 2.78; SD = 1.73) and two items for virtual nature experience (Cronbach’s α = .84; M = 2.40, SD =
1.6). Both measures are based on Hartmann and Apaolaza-Ibáñez (2012).
Perceived consumer effectiveness, a key variable in green advertising (Ellen, Wiener, & Cobb-
Walgren, 1991; Kim & Choi, 2005), was included as a control variable and was assessed with
three items based on Ellen et al. (1991) (Cronbach’s α = .79; M = 3.25, SD = 1.77).

Randomization check
Participants were equally distributed among the three conditions (33.1% control condition, 31.6%
functional ad condition, and 35.3% combined nature ad condition). A randomization check for
age, gender, and education level was successful.

Data analysis
We conducted path analyses to test our assumptions. To evaluate the model fit, the following criteria
were used: comparative fit index (CFI), root-mean-square error of approximation (RMSEA), and a
test of close fit (PCLOSE). The experimental conditions were dummy coded, using the control group
as the reference group. The interaction effects were modelled by including multiplicative terms of
condition and moderator. The interaction terms were mean centred. The covariates of age, gender,
education, perceived consumer effectiveness and survey mode (71% online) were included in all ana-
lyses. Despite the random assignment, the inclusion of covariates in the regression model results in
more precise inferences if they are predictive of the potential outcomes (Imbens & Rubin, 2015).

Results
For each dimension of involvement—environmental concern, attitude toward green products, and
green purchase behaviour—we performed a separate path analysis. Our tested hypotheses are listed
according to their position in the tested process model.
First, we tested the main effects of functional and nature ad appeals and the moderating role
of environmental concern on the outcome variables (see Table 1). The model fit was excellent
(CFI = 0.99, RMSEA = .05; PCLOSE = .49). Supporting both H1a and H3, we found significant
main effects from both the functional (b = 0.64; p = .001) and the combined nature ads (b = 0.91;
p < .001) on perceived environmental brand benefits. Virtual experiences of nature, as expected,
were influenced only by the combined nature ad (b = 1.37, p < .001), supporting H2a. The functional
ad had no effect on virtual nature experiences (b = 0.05, n.s.).
RQ1 asked how environmental involvement moderates the perception of utilitarian environ-
mental brand benefits and the virtual experience of nature in different green ad appeals. We
found that, in the functional ad condition, the ad–environmental concern interaction did not influ-
ence perceived environmental brand benefits (b = 0.08, n.s.). As expected, because no nature image
was present, the interaction term also had no influence on the virtual experience of nature (b = 0.11,
n.s.).
 ENVIRONMENTAL COMMUNICATION 421

Table 1. Path analysis for environmental concern as moderator, unstandardized path coefficients.
Dependent variables
Utilitarian Virtual Nature Purchase
Independent variables Benefits Experience Brand Attitude Intention
b SE b SE b SE b SE
Age −0.01* .01 0.01 .00 0.01 .00 −0.01 .00
Gender −0.01 .16 −0.24 .14 −0.10 .11 0.09 .13
Education −0.03 .08 0.02 .07 −0.06 .06 −0.02 .07
Survey Mode 0.25 .19 0.04 .16 0.06 .13 0.15 .15
Perceived Consumer Effectiveness 0.02 .05 0.05 .04 −0.02 .03 −0.02 .04
Environmental Concern −0.09 .11 −0.11 .10 0.06 .04 −0.03 .05
Functional Ad 0.64** .20 0.05 .17
Comb. Nature Ad 0.91*** .19 1.37*** .17
Functional Ad * Environmental Concern 0.08 .15 0.11 .13
Comb. Nature Ad * Environmental Concern 0.37* .15 0.32* .13
Utilitarian Benefits 0.28*** .04 0.14** .05
Virtual Nature Experience 0.25*** .04 0.13** .05
Brand Attitude 0.41*** .06
Explained Variance 0.09 0.19 0.34 0.31
Notes: Model fit: CFI = 0.99, RMSEA = .05; PCLOSE = .49; ***p < .001; **p < .01; *p < .05. Explained variance = squared multiple
correlations.

However, we found a significant positive impact of the interaction between exposure to the com-
bined nature ad and environmental concern on environmental brand benefits (b = 0.37, p < .05) and
virtual nature experiences (b = 0.32, p < .05). The positive sign of this interaction indicates that, as
levels of environmental concern increase, perceptions of utilitarian environmental brand benefits
and virtual experiences of nature in the combined nature ad do as well.
To further analyse this interaction, the effect of the combined nature ad at all levels of environ-
mental concern (i.e. not by splitting the sample) was investigated (see Hayes & Matthes, 2009). For
low and moderate levels of environmental concern (below 4.7 on a 7-point scale), the combined ad
had no significant influence on utilitarian environmental brand benefits compared to the control
group, while above 4.7, the effect was significant (ranging from b = 0.36, p < .05 to b = 1.24,
p < .001). The effect is also visualized in Figure 2 for low (1 SD below the mean), moderate, and
high (1 SD above the mean) levels of environmental concern. Likewise, there was a significant effect
of the combined nature ad on virtual nature experience when environmental concern was above 2.7
on a 7-point scale (ranging from b = 0.61, p < .05 to b = 1.83, p < .001) (see Figure 3).
As predicted, we found direct effects from utilitarian environmental brand benefits (b = 0.14,
p < .01) and virtual nature experiences (b = 0.13, p < .01) on purchase intention, supporting H1b
and H2b. Furthermore, we found that utilitarian environmental brand benefits (b = 0.28, p < .001)
and virtual nature experiences (b = 0.25, p < .001) positively affected brand attitude, which in turn
had a significant positive influence on purchase intention (b = 0.42, p < .001). Thus, H1c and H2c
were also supported.
It is important to note that the effects of the combined ad and the functional ad were not signifi-
cant when treating purchase intention as the dependent variable (not shown in Table 1). When vir-
tual nature experiences and environmental brand benefits were omitted from the model, no
significant effects on purchase intention were observed, suggesting that virtual nature experiences
and environmental brand benefits function as mediators.
Altogether, we observed an influence of the functional ad on purchase intention by affecting utili-
tarian benefits, which, in turn, exerted a significant effect on brand attitudes. Thus, the functional ad’s
effect on purchase intention was mediated by utilitarian benefits and by brand attitudes. A formal test
of the mediation on brand attitudes confirmed our findings using a 95% bias corrected bootstrapping
confidence interval with 1000 samples. The effect of the functional ad on brand attitude mediated by
utilitarian benefits was significant (b = 0.18, Lower Level Confidence Interval [LLCI] = .014, Upper
Level Confidence Interval [ULCI] = .38). However, the effect was not significant with virtual nature
422 D. SCHMUCK ET AL.

Figure 2. Effects of the combined nature ad on utilitarian environmental brand benefits at low, moderate, and high levels of
environmental concern.

experiences as mediator (b = 0.01, LLCI = −.07, ULCI = .09). We also found that the combined nature
ad’s effect on brand attitudes was mediated by utilitarian benefits (b = 0.25, LLCI = .14, ULCI = .41).
Finally, we tested the conditional indirect effect on brand attitudes using a 95% bias corrected
bootstrapping confidence interval. That is, the effect of the combined nature ad on attitude
was mediated by virtual nature experiences and moderated by environmental concern (b = 0.07,
LLCI = .01, ULCI = .15). And, it was mediated by utilitarian benefits and moderated by environmental
concern (b = 0.11, LLCI = .03, ULCI = .20).
Regarding RQ2, we found a similar pattern for the other two dimensions of green involvement. As
did environmental concern, the interaction of attitudes toward green products and exposure to the
functional ad had no moderating effect on perceived utilitarian environmental brand benefits (b =

Figure 3. Effects of the combined nature ad on virtual nature experiences at low, moderate, and high levels of environmental
concern.
 ENVIRONMENTAL COMMUNICATION 423

0.21; n.s.) and virtual nature experiences (b = 0.05, n.s.) (see Table 2). The same holds true for green
purchase behaviour as moderator (see Table 3) (b = 0.09; n.s. resp. b = 0.11, n.s.).
Similar to environmental concern, attitudes toward green products (b = 0.34; p < .01) and green
purchase behaviour (b = 0.34, p < .01) significantly moderated the combined nature ad’s effect on
the virtual experience of nature. The conditional indirect effects on brand attitude were significant
(attitudes toward green products: b = 0.09, LLCI = .04, ULCI = .18; green purchase behaviour: b =
0.10, LLCI = .04, ULCI = .18). However, the moderating effects on environmental brand benefits
were below the conventional level of statistical significance for attitudes toward green products (b
= 0.23; p = .09) and green purchase behaviour (b = 0.26, p = .08). Thus, it can be concluded that
environmental concern exerted the strongest moderating effects on utilitarian environmental
brand benefits, although green product attitudes and green purchasing behaviour followed a similar
pattern. However, this conclusion applies only to the combined nature ad. For the functional ad,
involvement did not matter at all.
To investigate which appeal exerted the strongest effect on the outcome variables, we conducted
additional separate analyses for each appeal. Comparing the explained variance of the functional and
the combined appeal, the functional ad appeal accounted for 2.5% of the variance of utilitarian
benefits and 5% of perceived nature experience. The combined nature appeal’s sole effect, however,
explained 6.3% of the variance of utilitarian benefits and 18.4% of perceived virtual nature experi-
ence. Thus, although moderated by environmental involvement, the combined ad appeal proved
to be more powerful than the sole functional green appeal.
Among the control variables, we found that age had an overall negative effect on most outcome
variables, which can be explained by the presented stimulus: A cellphone might have a greater appeal
to younger people compared to older individuals.

Discussion
Following the footsteps of Hartmann and Apaolaza-Ibáñez (2009), this study set out to investigate
whether environmental brand benefits and nature imagery in green advertisements affect brand atti-
tude and purchase intention by activating cognitive and affective processes such as perceived utili-
tarian environmental brand benefits and virtual nature experiences. Additionally, we tested the
moderating role of consumers’ environmental involvement by comparing three different facets of
environmental involvement that are most relevant in previous literature: environmental concern,
attitudes toward green products, and green purchase behaviour (Naderer et al., 2017).
Overall, the results corroborate with Hartmann and Apaolaza-Ibáñez (2009) findings that posi-
tioning a brand as environmentally friendly increases perceived utilitarian environmental brand
benefits and virtual nature experiences which in turn leads to more positive evaluations of the

Table 2. Path analysis for attitude toward green products as moderator, unstandardized path coefficients.
Dependent variables
Utilitarian Virtual Nature Purchase
Benefits Experience Brand Attitude Intention
Independent variables b SE b SE b SE b SE
Attitude twd. Green Products 0.11 .10 0.03 .09 0.01 .04 −0.03 .05
Functional Ad 0.63** .19 0.06 .17
Comb. Nature Ad 0.93*** .19 1.41*** .16
Functional Ad * Attitude twd. Green Products 0.21 .14 0.05 .13
Comb. Nature Ad * Attitude twd. Green Products 0.23 .14 0.34** .12
Utilitarian Benefits 0.28*** .04 0.14** .05
Virtual Nature Experience 0.25*** .04 0.13** .05
Brand Attitude 0.42*** .06
Explained Variance 0.11 0.21 0.34 0.31
Notes: Model fit: CFI = 0.99, RMSEA = .03; PCLOSE = .77; ***p < .001; **p < .01; *p < .05. Explained variance = squared multiple
correlations.
424 D. SCHMUCK ET AL.

Table 3. Path analysis for green purchase behavior as moderator, unstandardized path coefficients.
Dependent variables
Virtual Nature Purchase
Utilitarian Benefits Experience Brand Attitude Intention
Independent variables b SE b SE b SE b SE
Green Purchase Behavior −0.03 .10 −0.09 .09 0.03 .04 0.06 .05
Functional Ad 0.65** .20 0.06 .17
Comb. Nature Ad 0.92*** .19 1.40*** .17
Functional Ad * Green Purchase 0.09 .15 0.11 .13
Comb. Nature Ad * Green Purchase 0.26 .15 0.34** .13
Utilitarian Benefits 0.28*** .04 0.14** .05
Virtual Nature Experience 0.25*** .04 0.13** .05
Brand Attitude 0.42*** .06
Explained Variance 0.08 0.19 0.34 0.31
Notes: Model fit: CFI = 1.00, RMSEA = .01; PCLOSE = .90; ***p < .001; **p < .01; *p < .05. Explained variance = squared multiple
correlations.

brand. Compared to conventional ads, both types of green ads led to higher brand attitudes and pur-
chase intentions. It is important to note that we found no direct effects of the functional and com-
bined ad on purchase intention, which rules out alternative explanations such as, for instance, the
ad’s different designs or attributes associated with the product other than its environmental features.
Regarding the role of environmental involvement, the ELM holds that functional ad appeals
should be more persuasive for highly involved individuals more motivated to process complex infor-
mation. However, connecting the brand with a green eco-seal and a slogan promoting the brand’s
greenness increased perceptions of environmental utilitarian brand benefits among all recipients,
irrespective of their involvement level. Therefore, contrary to earlier findings (Matthes et al.,
2014), the effects of the functional environmental ad were independent of environmental concern,
attitude toward green products, and green purchase behaviour. However, in contrast to the study
by Matthes et al. (2014), which used a variety of detailed environmental arguments in the functional
condition, the functional appeal in the present study consisted of a simple claim, specifically a well-
known green eco-seal, which did not require high processing motivation or cognitive ability. Instead,
the green claim we used can be considered as a heuristic cue because it did not explain environmental
attributes in detail. This might explain why consumers high and low in environmental involvement
perceived environmental brand benefits to a comparable degree.
With regard to the combined nature ad, however, we found moderation effects of environmental
involvement on utilitarian environmental brand benefits and on virtual nature experience, which
resulted in higher brand attitudes and purchase intention. In other words, the combined nature
ad only increased environmental brand benefits and virtual nature experience when a certain
level of involvement was present. When this involvement level was reached, the combined ad’s
effects on virtual nature experience and environmental brand benefits were accelerated.
This finding implicates that in particular highly involved consumers—who could be expected to be
more critical—were more easily persuaded by the simple presence of a pleasant nature image. How-
ever, beautiful visual representations of nature sceneries seem to lever out this critical view. Instead,
environmental involvement might be highly correlated with such feelings as loving nature and
being one with nature (Hartmann et al., 2013; Matthes & Wonneberger, 2014). This overall affinity
toward nature may form a motivational basis of environmental responsible behaviour (Kals, Schuma-
cher, & Montada, 1999) and green ads featuring beautiful nature scenery and environmental brand
attributes may trigger these intentions to protect the environment among highly motivated individuals
(Hartmann et al., 2013; Hartmann & Apaolaza-Ibáñez, 2008). This effect, however, is not present for
very low levels of involvement. In other words, a minimal level of green involvement is necessary. Fur-
thermore, the effect of the combined ad on purchase intention cannot only be explained by an
increased emotional response, such as virtually experiencing nature, but also by the perception of
environmental utilitarian brand benefits. Therefore, in addition to affective influences, images of
 ENVIRONMENTAL COMMUNICATION 425

nature in green ads can increase the salience of environmentally friendly product features (Hartmann
et al., 2013), which may positively influence brand attitudes and purchase intention.
Finally, we found that all three involvement dimensions—attitudes toward green products, green
purchase behaviour, and environmental concern—played an important role as a moderator of green
advertising effects. Although these facets are related, we found that environmental concern exerted
the strongest moderating effects on utilitarian environmental brand benefits, so the three are not
entirely similar (see also Matthes et al., 2014). Thus, we believe that it is important to take all of
them into account when investigating green advertising effects. However, further research is needed
to gain a more thorough understanding of the different moderating roles of these three involvement
dimensions.

Limitations
The present study has some notable limitations. The first one refers to our experimental conditions.
We compared a functional and a combined nature ad (including both nature imagery and functional
appeal), using the same conditions and approach as earlier studies on the effects of green ads on
environmental brand benefits and virtual nature experiences (Hartmann & Apaolaza-Ibáñez,
2009). However, we did not have a nature-only condition. Although our study was not intended
to systematically investigate the effects of functional and image-based appeals, a nature-only con-
dition would have provided broader insights into the effects of green ads.
Second, we found that brand attitude partially mediated the effects of perceived utilitarian
environmental benefits and virtual nature experience on purchase intention. Additionally, we
found a direct effect of these two constructs on purchase intention. We do not know whether
other factors than brand attitude mediate the effects on purchase intention. It can be speculated
that our measure of brand attitudes was too simple and, therefore, could not fully mediate the effect
on purchase intention. Other dimensions of brand attitude might play a crucial role in this context.
Future research should address other potential mediators. Also, we used an unknown brand which
limits generalizability to established brands. We chose to use a fictitious brand to avoid existing
associations individuals may have with this brand before the study. This limits the validity of our
construct “brand attitude”. However, we think that it was the best way to measure this construct
as a mediator in the present study. The practice of using unknown or fictitious brands is quite com-
mon in advertising research in general and the measure we used is widespread (e.g. Barone, Taylor, &
Urbany, 2005). In terms of validity, findings speak to brands that are unknown or brands that are
introduced to the market. For such brands, we show how they can be associated with environmental
appeals in an ad, and how such appeals speak to consumers. There is a large share of relatively
unknown brands out there to which consumers are confronted day by day. Hence, we believe the
practice of using unknown brands in advertising research is defensible.
Another drawback concerns the use of only two or three items for some constructs. However, all
these items have been validated and are regarded as valid and reliable in a large body of earlier work.
Therefore, we do not believe that including more items would change the strong relationships we
observed. Also, we used a forced-exposure design which needs to be validated in other settings
(see Slater, 2016).
Finally, we did not consider long-term effects. Looking at short-term effects does not enable to
draw conclusions about the longevity and dynamics of green ads’ attitudinal effects. Future research
should encompass long-term effects.

Practical implications
Irrespective of these limitations, our findings have considerable practical implications. Our study
suggests that green advertisements are a powerful tool to increase environmental responsible actions
such as purchasing products that are less harmful to the environment. The findings reveal that a simple
426 D. SCHMUCK ET AL.

environmental cue, which does not require a high amount of cognitive elaboration, can increase per-
ceived environmental brand benefits irrespective of a consumer’s environmental involvement level.
An ad, which combines an environmental brand attribute with pleasant nature imagery, in contrast,
activates an additional emotional process, which is comparable to feelings experienced in real nature
(Hartmann & Apaolaza-Ibáñez, 2009). To trigger this emotional process, however, a minimal amount
of environmental involvement is required. If this threshold level of involvement level is achieved, a
combined ad exerts a strong influence on virtual experiences of nature.
From a consumer protection perspective, this finding points to the risk of distracting consumers
from a product’s actual environmental features by employing pleasant nature images in green adver-
tising. Recent studies suggest that nature-evoking elements in advertising may mislead consumers
through inducing false perceptions of a brand’s greenness (e.g. Naderer et al., 2017; Parguel,
Benoît-Moreau, & Russell, 2015). Even consumers with high literacy (Parguel et al., 2015) or high
environmental concern (Matthes et al., 2014) do not entirely resist vague or false green claims
that promote a brand’s ecological image simply by associating it with pleasant nature imagery. In
the present study, the nature image was combined with a well-known credible third-party eco-
seal. The mere association of the presented eco-seal with a simple nature image increased attitudinal
outcomes, in particular among higher involved consumers. Yet one could expect that consumers
high in environmental involvement (i.e. the green experts) are immune against the appeals of nature
imagery. This is clearly not the case. Especially the green experts can be persuaded by nature imagery.
This finding points to the risk of executing “greenwashing” in green advertising by artificially enhan-
cing a brand’s ecological image through the use of nature images (see Baum, 2012; Naderer et al.,
2017). That is, the impact of weak or vague green arguments may be enhanced by evoking virtual
nature experiences. And even highly involved green consumers may not realize it.

Note
1. In addition, an alternative model following Hartmann and Apaolaza-Ibáñez (2008) was calculated. In this
model, we entered environmental involvement as moderator of the effects of virtual nature experiences and
environmental brand benefits on brand attitude. It is important to note that we did not find a moderating effect
of environmental concern and environmental brand benefits (b = 0.02, n.s.) nor of environmental concern and
virtual nature experiences (b = −0.012, n.s.) on brand attitude (CFI = 0.99, RMSEA = .07, PCLOSE = .99). How-
ever, when purchase intention was the dependent variable, we found a significant interaction effect of environ-
mental concern and environmental brand benefits (b = 0.08, p < .05) but no interaction of environmental
concern and virtual nature experiences (b = −0.04, n.s.) (CFI = 1.00, RMSEA = .00, PCLOSE = .92). Thus, we
find that higher involved individuals rely more heavily on environmental brand benefits when forming a pur-
chase intention. These results did not differ for green purchase behavior and attitude toward green products as
moderators.

Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

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Appendix

Attitude toward the brand: unattractive–attractive; not likable–likable; negative–positive; boring–interesting; not
recommendable–recommendable.
Purchase intention: Would you be interested in buying a product of “Eagle Mobile” in the future? How likely is such
a purchase?
Environmental concern: I am concerned about the environment; The condition of the environment affects the qual-
ity of my life; I am willing to make sacrifices to protect the environment; My actions impact the environment.
Attitudes toward green products: I like green products; I feel positive toward green products; Green products are
good for the environment; I feel proud when I buy/use green products.
Green purchase behavior: I make a special effort to buy products in biodegradable packages; I would switch from
my usual brands and buy environmentally safe cleaning products, even if I have to give up some cleaning effectiveness;
I have switched products for ecological reasons; When I have a choice between two equal products, I purchase the one
less harmful to the environment; I enjoy buying green products; Buying green products is the preferable option.
Utilitarian environmental brand benefits: “Eagle Mobile” respects the environment; A cellphone by “Eagle Mobile”
is better for the environment than other cellphone brands.
Virtual nature experience: “Eagle Mobile” makes me feel close to nature; “Eagle Mobile” makes me think of nature,
fields, forests and mountains.
Perceived consumer effectiveness: There is not much that any one individual can do about the environment
(reversed); The conservation efforts of one person are useless as long as other people refuse to conserve (reversed);
The efforts of one individual to protect the environment are hopeless if others reject environmental protection
(reversed).

Control Condition
 ENVIRONMENTAL COMMUNICATION 429

Functional Ad Condition

Combined Nature Ad Condition