Open Education Studies 2024; 6: 20240013

Research Article

Poonam Punia*, Swati Jangra, Manju Phor

Unveiling Connections between Stress, Anxiety,

Depression, and Delinquency Proneness:
Analysing the General Strain Theory
[Link] delinquency proneness (accounts for 82.1% mediation).
received June 27, 2023; accepted April 23, 2024 Furthermore, depression also mediates the relationship
Abstract between stress and delinquency proneness (accounts for
Background/objective ‒ The present study explored the 74.5% mediation).
correlation between different types of stress (acute and Conclusions ‒ The results support the general strain theory,
chronic) and the influence of their negative emotional which posits that strain (anxiety and stress) can lead to delin-
manifestations on delinquent tendencies in adolescent stu- quency proneness, which is mediated by depression. Research
dents. Within the framework of the general strain theory, shows that delinquency proneness, depression, and stress
the study aims to analyse the intermediary role of depres- are prevalent among adolescents. To prevent juvenile delin-
sion in the relationship between anxiety and stress. This quency, effective intervention programs should focus on
study investigated the relationship between stress, anxiety, equipping young people with interpersonal skills and coping
depression, and delinquency proneness in adolescent school strategies.
students in Sonepat, India. Keywords: stress, anxiety, depression, delinquency prone-
Methods and materials ‒ The present study utilised the ness, adolescents, mediation effect
descriptive survey method. Data were collected using stan-
dardised questionnaires based on self-reporting. Anxiety
depression and stress scale and delinquency proneness scale
were used to collect data from a sample of 200 students aged 1 Introduction
between 14 and 18 years from various schools in the district.
Results ‒ The comparison (using independent t-test) revealed Adolescence is typically considered to begin at the onset of
that levels of anxiety (t = −1.683, p = 0.094), depression (t = puberty and ends with attaining physiological or psycho-
−0.196, p = 0.845), and delinquency proneness (t = −1.348, p = logical maturity (Blakemore, Burnett, & Dahl, 2010). It is
0.179) were not significantly different between males and considered a transition period between childhood and
females, with the exception of stress (t = −2.929, p = 0.004). adulthood (Kapur, 2015). According to UNICEF (2021), India
Furthermore, results of the Pearson product-moment correla- has 20.5% of the world’s adolescent population or over 243
tion indicated a significant positive association between stress, million young people. According to medical research and
anxiety, depression, and delinquency proneness. Regression clinical experience, an increasing number of adolescents
analysis results showed that stress, anxiety, and depression are experiencing mental and emotional problems (Aboo-
have a significant effect on delinquency proneness (F(3, baker, Jangam, Sagar, Amaresha, & Jose, 2019; Mohamma-
196) = 28.2, p < 0.001). It further indicated that stress, anxiety, dyfar, Azizpour, Najafi, & Nooripour, 2017; Walls, Chapple,
and depression cause 29.1% variation in delinquency prone- & Johnson, 2007). However, there are a variety of reasons
ness. In addition, results of mediation analysis showed that why adolescents experience stress during this period. In recent
depression mediates the relationship between anxiety and years, advances in diagnosis, epidemiological research, and
evolutionary psychology have improved our understanding
of stress, anxiety, and depression (Nooripour et al., 2021,
 2022). All these psychological distresses are common in the lives
* Corresponding author: Poonam Punia, Department of Education,
of adolescents. Mental distress, in turn, can interfere with one’s
Bhagat Phool Singh Mahila Vishwavidyalaya, Sonepat, India,
e-mail: poonampunia13@[Link]
ability to hold a job or complete school, limit participation in
Swati Jangra, Manju Phor: Department of Education, BPSMV Khanpur social and family activities, and reduce productivity (Hossei-
Kalan, Sonepat, India nian, Nooripour, & Afrooz, 2019). These psychological distresses

Open Access. © 2024 the author(s), published by De Gruyter. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
2  Poonam Punia et al.

even cause many other problems such as use of alcohol, drugs, behaviour that contravenes societal norms. A delinquent
smoking, increase in youth violence, and educational failure individual lacks a strong sense of moral judgment, and a
(Hosseinian et al., 2019). Notably, most adolescents during this propensity for action characterises their mental state without
time period experience various types of stressors, which can consideration for or deliberate obstruction of the well-being
manifest as anxiety, aggression, anger, and stress, leading to of others (Woodmansey, 1971).
negative feelings and emotions (Hosseinian et al., 2019; Noor- A certain level of strain is crucial for individuals to
ipour et al., 2021, 2022; You & Lim, 2015). maintain activity, attentiveness, and stimulation. The role
Negative emotions resulting from the adversity of life events of strain in an organism is essential for its adaptation to the
foster delinquent behaviour among adolescents (Solakoglu environment and is an intrinsic aspect of life (Connor-
et al., 2018). Delinquent behaviour is unacceptable antisocial Smith, Compas, Wadsworth, Thomsen, & Saltzman, 2000).
behaviour. However, very few researchers have examined Research by the American Psychological Association (APA)
its plausible related factors among adolescent students. in 2013 revealed that 83% of adolescent students perceived
General strain theory (GST) suggests that adolescents who school as a significant source of stress. Additionally, a sub-
experience strain and negative emotions are at an increased sequent survey by the APA in 2018 highlighted that adoles-
risk for delinquent behaviour among them. These negative cents aged 15–21 express concerns over various issues such
emotions, such as depression, result from different forms of as gun violence, school shootings, increasing suicidal ten-
strain (stress, anxiety) (Kim & Han, 2021). At the same time, dencies, environmental challenges, mistreatment of immi-
other strains are produced as a consequence of life expecta- grants, and incidents of sexual assault, among others. For
tions and actual achievement. GST claims that strain adolescents, worry can manifest in diverse forms, including
(anxiety, anger, aggression, and other painful conditions) physical symptoms like sweaty palms, a racing heart, dry
may not directly result in criminal behaviour among adoles- mouth during presentations, and anxieties about the future,
cents (Agnew, 1985). However, the strain could have triggered which are indicative of anxiety (Garber & Weersing, 2010;
some intervening variable, which can be represented as an Nooripour et al., 2021). Anxiety has been found to have
adverse effect, feelings of disgust, sadness, discomfort, depres- adverse effects on students’ academic, psychological, and intel-
sion, or other negative emotions that further result in delin- lectual development (Essau, Conradt, & Petermann, 2000).
quent or deviant behaviour among adolescents (Leas & According to the American Psychiatric Association (1994),
Mellor, 2000). Strain could act as a precursor to intermediary anxiety is characterised by a strong negative emotional state,
variables, manifesting as adverse effects or negative emotions physical signs of tension, and an apprehensive outlook
like disgust, sadness, and depression that ultimately lead to towards potential future threats or disasters. As adolescents
delinquent or deviant behaviours among adolescents (Wang transition into a stage of increased responsibility and contem-
et al., 2015). All these unpleasant events or situations are the plation of their future, many experience significant levels of
result of a negative emotional state that occurs as a result of academic anxiety (Deb, Strodl, & Sun, 2015). The GST posits
experiencing strain (Peck, 2013), and coping strategies are that individuals facing strain in social relationships are more
required to ease internal pressure to deal with these unplea- prone to engaging in delinquent behaviours (Brezina, 2016).
sant emotions. In GST, Agnew delineates three main strain- Furthermore, according to the secondary assumption
producing situations: (1) failure to attain positively valued of GST, individuals under stress may turn to delinquency
goals, (2) elimination of positively valued stimuli, and (3) as a coping mechanism that provides adaptive and pro-
exposure to negative stimuli that may lead to unethical blem-solving functions (Brezina, 1996). During adolescence,
responses (Agnew & White, 1992). Such aversive and painful stress, anxiety, and depression can surface in the form of
events or conditions are believed to trigger negative emotions conflicts with parents, mood fluctuations, and risky beha-
ranging from rage to aggression, anger, and depression, viours. Previous literature underscores that issues of stress,
which leads to delinquent behaviour as a means of coping anxiety, and depression among adolescents may stem not
with those adverse and negative emotions (Agnew, 2012). only from academic pressures but also from familial or
According to GST, individuals may engage in delinquent societal factors (LeBeau et al., 2010).
behaviour as an adaptation strategy to negative emotions A thorough literature review shows that adolescent
caused by strain (Wortley, Mazerolle, & Rombouts, 2008). students undergo significant physical and psychological
Therefore, delinquent behaviour is thought to be a coping changes characterised by a lack of inner security resulting
strategy for dealing with adverse events or conditions. from unhealthy relationships with their parents and society.
Delinquency is not an easy idea to outline due to its multi- This lack of inner security promotes anxiety, depression,
faceted characteristics. Antisocial behaviour involves the and stress symptoms in young people. During adolescence,
violation of societal laws while defines delinquency as depression (Fanti, Colins, & Andershed, 2019), stress, and
 Analysing the General Strain Theory  3

anxiety (e.g., Beyers & Loeber, 2003; Fanti & Henrich, 2010) students. While the perspective examines the relationship
contribute to an increase in delinquent behaviours. These between stress, anxiety, despair, and crime within the frame-
factors are associated with a heightened risk of suicidal work of a general stress theory, it suggests the possibility of
tendencies, homicidal thoughts, drug or tobacco use, and similar research into mediating mechanisms in order to com-
other substance abuse within this demographic (Hosseinian prehensively elucidate complex relationships. GST suggests
et al., 2019). When people suffer from stress and depression, that a person’s emotional responses to challenging life events
they experience discomfort and reduced interest in their aca- are critical to behavioural development (Agnew, 1992). It also
demic and professional activities (Nooripour et al., 2024; notes that prolonged exposure to situations can lead people to
Schwartz & Schwartz, 1993). People suffering from depression engage in criminal activities. This current study is based on
often have difficulty carrying out routine activities and experi- the idea that negative emotions resulting from adversity
ence great sadness and a feeling of detachment from the contribute to adolescent behaviour. The aim is to use
world that seems to lack joy. Everything seems meaningless existing research to examine how anxiety, depression,
and leaves a pervasive feeling of emptiness and the belief that and stress affect crime tendencies. First, the study will com-
only negative events lie ahead. pare the levels of stress, anxiety, depression, and delin-
People with depression often display anger, fear, and quency tendencies among students based on their gender.
aggression towards others (Wetzel, 1994). They may also Following this comparison, researchers will examine the
engage in illegal and antisocial behaviour, drug abuse, connections between delinquency tendencies and feelings
excessive alcohol consumption, poor dietary habits, and of anxiety, stress, and depression. In addition to the above
various other unlawful activities (Franko, Striegel-Moore, objectives, researchers formulated some research questions
Thompson, Schreiber, & Daniels, 2005; Haarasilta, Mart- to assess the influence of anxiety, stress, and depression on
tunen, Kaprio, & Aro, 2004). These circumstances combine delinquency proneness.
to contribute to increased levels of stress among adolescent Moreover, the researchers have tried to conduct a
students, who often encounter terms such as depression, detailed analysis to understand how anxiety, depression,
sadness, and stress that impact their physical and mental and stress act as the main drivers of delinquency prone-
well-being. Adverse life events can worsen cognitive func- ness. This hypothesised model is based on previous litera-
tioning (Mohammadyfar et al., 2017), behavioural problems, ture, where adverse life events that affect delinquent
and hyperactivity (Flouri & Panourgia, 2011a,b). Mental ill- behaviour are mediated by depression (Xie et al., 2019).
ness has a profound impact as it affects people from diverse In this research work, it is assumed that anxiety and
backgrounds and imposes significant financial, social, eco- stress are correlated with delinquency proneness but
nomic, and societal burdens on those affected and their through the mediating role of depression (Figure 1). In
families. Agnew argues that stress can influence deviant other words, anxiety and stress among adolescents mani-
or delinquent behaviour depending on social circumstances. fest psychological and behavioural problems, leading to
Research suggests an increase in feelings of anxiety, stress, delinquency proneness among them. Research questions
and depression among school-aged adolescents in India based on the current study are discussed as follows:
(Kumar & Akoijam, 2017; Sandal et al., 2017). RQ1: To what extent do anxiety, depression, and stress
The literature highlights a gap in the existing literature reflect on delinquency proneness?
regarding the nuanced knowledge about the relationship RQ2: Does depression act as a mediator in the relation-
between different types of stress (acute and continuous), ship between anxiety and delinquency proneness?
negative emotional manifestations (such as tension and RQ2: Does depression act as a mediator in the relation-
depression), and criminal tendencies in adolescent university ship between stress and delinquency proneness?

Stress H2

H5

Depression
H3 Delinquency
Proneness
H4

Anxiety H1

Figure 1: Hypothesised model.

4  Poonam Punia et al.

2 Method among Indian adolescents of the 14–18 age group. This

scale is based on the self-report method of measuring
delinquency proneness. It measured various acts related
2.1 Participants and Design
to delinquency among adolescents, such as truancy from
school and home, shoplifting, bullying, stealing at home
The research collected data through a structured survey of
and school, drinking, smoking, gambling, taking part in
adolescent students to understand their experiences, per-
fights, damaging parked vehicles, dealing in stolen goods,
ceptions, and behaviours. Specifically, the study targeted
getting expelled from school, pranking calls, and sex abuse.
200 adolescent students in grades 9 and 10 at four schools
It contains 60 items and comprises 2 dimensions: the delin-
in Sonepat district. These schools comprised a mix of pri-
quency proneness scale and the lie scale. Out of the total
vate and government institutions and offered diverse educa-
number of items, 54 belong to the delinquency proneness
tional environments. Participants in the study were between
scale, and 6 belong to the lie scale taken from Eyscenck’s
the ages of 14 and 18 and spanned the critical period of
Personality Questionnaire (Eaves & Eysenck, 1975). Relia-
adolescence, which was characterised by significant physical,
bility of the delinquency proneness scale was estimated
cognitive, and social–emotional development. There were 118
using Cronbach’s alpha, which comes out to be 0.80.
men and 82 women among the students surveyed, which
reflects a relatively balanced gender distribution within the
sample. The selection of schools from private and public sec-
tors ensured a broader socio-economic range and potentially
2.3 Procedure for Data Collection
captured differences in demographics, cultural backgrounds,
and educational resources.
In compliance with ethical standards, the research pro-
Using the survey method, researchers systematically
tocol included several measures, such as obtaining ethical
collected information. The structured nature of the survey
approval from the schools before collecting data. Informed
facilitated the collection of quantitative data and enabled
consent procedures were carefully implemented to ensure
statistical analyses to identify patterns, correlations, and
adolescent students’ autonomy and voluntary participa-
trends across various variables.
tion. Before conducting the survey, researchers provided par-
ticipants and their guardians with detailed information about
the purpose of the study and procedures. This information
2.2 Material was presented in a clear and understandable manner so
that participants could make informed decisions about their
In order to capture the range of strains occurring during participation in the study. Rapport was formed with the par-
adolescence, researchers incorporate the anxiety depres- ticipants to collect the data for the present study. The parti-
sion and stress scale (ADSS) to measure negative emotions cipants were briefed about the purpose of this study. Once the
such as stress, anxiety, and depression among adolescents informed consent was taken from them, they were given the
(Singh & Bhatnagar, 2016). This ADSS was developed by standardised questionnaire to fill – ADSS and delinquency
Bhatnagar et al. in the year 2011 to measure anxiety, proneness scale. The confidentiality of each of the partici-
depression, and stress between the age group of 14 and pants was ensured. The researcher ensured that the partici-
70 years. This scale comprised 48 items divided into 3 sub- pants had answered all the questions.
scales such as anxiety subscale (19 items), depression sub-
scale (15 items), and stress subscale (14 items). Before using
the scale, its reliability was calculated using Cronbach’s
alpha (0.81) and the Spearman–Brown coefficient (0.89). 3 Results
Along with this, Cornbach’s alpha values for the subscales,
i.e. anxiety (0.76), depression (0.75), and stress (0.61), were Before conducting data analysis, the data were cleaned for
also estimated. The Spearman–Brown coefficient for these missing values and extreme values. Results presented in
subscales was measured; it comes out to be 0.86, 0.86, and Figure 2 show the level of anxiety among adolescent stu-
0.76, respectively, further confirming the scale’s reliability. dents. It shows that approximately 38 and 35% of the ado-
The delinquency proneness scale was used to measure lescent students have average and above-average level of
adolescents’ delinquent behaviour or criminal attitude. anxiety. Few adolescent students, about 18 and 10%, have
Chopra and Kaur constructed this scale in 2013 to measure high and below-average anxiety levels. However, there
the involvement in delinquent and criminal behaviour are very few adolescent students, with approximately 4%
 Analysing the General Strain Theory  5

Figure 2: Frequency distribution of the anxiety level among adolescent Figure 4: Frequency distribution of the stress level among adolescent
students. students.

having extremely high level of anxiety. The result from contrast, approximately 20% of these adolescent students
Figure 3 depicts the level of depression in adolescent stu- lie at low delinquency proneness.
dents. It shows that approximately 58% of the adolescent Furthermore, results from Table 1 show the descrip-
students are having an average level of depression. Few tive statistics of the 200 students; males comprised 59%
adolescent students, approximately 20%, have above and (118), while females were 41% (82). All variables were ana-
below-average depression. Only 10% of the adolescent stu- lysed and determined to be within acceptable normality
dents have a high level of depression. Results from Figure 4 criteria, allowing for routine analysis and fit.
demonstrate the level of stress among adolescent students. In order to compare stress, anxiety, depression, and
It indicates that approximately 59% of the adolescent students delinquency proneness in adolescents on the basis of gender,
have average and approximately 18% have above-average an independent sample t-test was performed. Study results
stress levels. Few adolescent students, approximately 10 and from Table 1 indicate that delinquency proneness in female
9%, have below-average and high levels of stress. Only 8% of (M = 70.10, SD = 4.69) and male (M = 71.16, SD = 5.98) adoles-
the adolescent students lie at low level of stress. Figure 5 cent students do not differ significantly (t = −1.348, p = 0.179).
shows the level of delinquency proneness among adolescent Furthermore, results also revealed that anxiety levels in male
students. It indicates that approximately 80% of the adoles- (M = 8.73, SD = 4.08) and female (M = 9.62, SD = 3.05) adoles-
cent students have moderate delinquency proneness. In cent students also do not differ significantly (t = −1.683, p =
0.094). Depression level in male (M = 6.40, SD = 4.14) and
female (M = 6.29, SD = 3.11) adolescent students show similar

Figure 3: Frequency distribution of the depression level among adoles- Figure 5: Frequency distribution of delinquency proneness among
cent students. adolescent students.
6  Poonam Punia et al.

Table 1: Comparison of delinquency proneness, anxiety, depression, and stress among adolescents based on gender (independent sample t-test)

Variable Group N Kolmogorov–Smirnov Mean Median SD t-Value p-Value Effect size

Delinquency proneness F 82 0.141 70.10 69.50 4.69 −1.348 0.179 0.193

M 118 0.143 71.16 69.50 5.98
Anxiety F 82 0.97 9.62 10.00 3.05 1.683 0.094 0.247
M 118 0.114 8.73 9.00 4.08
Depression F 82 0.115 6.29 6.00 3.11 −0.196 0.845 0.028
M 118 0.125 6.40 6.00 4.14
Stress F 82 0.196 7.80 7.00 2.68 2.929 0.004 0.42
M 118 0.187 6.62 7.00 2.91

Table 2: Relationship between delinquency proneness, stress, anxiety, RQ1: To what extent do anxiety, depression, and
and depression among adolescents (Person product moment stress reflect on delinquency proneness?
correlation) To explore RQ1, asking how much delinquency prone-
ness variance can be explained by anxiety, depression, and
Variable 1 2 3 4 stress, regression analysis was conducted. Results of regres-
Delinquency proneness 1 sion analysis from Table 3 depict that anxiety, depression,
Anxiety 0.362*** 1 and stress are the significant predictors of delinquency pro-
Depression 0.544*** 0.588*** 1 neness (F(3, 196) = 28.2, p < 0.001) among adolescents. The
Stress 0.332*** 0.658*** 0.493*** 1
result further indicates that a 29.1% variation in delin-
Note. *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001. quency proneness is due to anxiety, depression, and stress.
Moreover, the t-value for each variable revealed that out of
the three variables (i.e. anxiety (t = 0.272, p = 0.786), stress
trend (t = −0.196, p = 0.845). However, stress levels in male
(t = 0.91, p = 0.364), and depression (t = 6.587, p < 0.001))
(M = 6.62, SD = 2.91) and female (M = 7.80, SD = 2.68) exhibit
depression comes out to be the most significant predictor of
significant differences (t = −2.929, p = 0.004) among adoles-
delinquency proneness.
cent students. Results also show that female adolescents
RQ2: Does depression act as a mediator in the rela-
have higher stress levels than male adolescents.
tionship between anxiety and delinquency proneness?
Furthermore, Pearson product-moment correlation was
A mediation analysis was performed to investigate
carried out to explore the research hypotheses H1, H2, H3,
whether depression acts as a mediator for the association
H4, and H5. The result presented in Table 2 indicates that
between anxiety and delinquency proneness. In the first
delinquency proneness is positively correlated with anxiety
step, anxiety was taken as an independent variable to per-
(r = 0.32, p < 0.001) and stress (r = 0.332, p < 0.001) among
form regression analysis as it was a predictor of delinquent
adolescent students. This suggests that anxious behaviour
behaviour in previous research. However, in the second step,
and stress among adolescent students lead to an increase
when depression was added during hierarchical regression,
in delinquency proneness behaviour. At the same time,
the effect of anxiety on delinquency proneness became insig-
depression is also significantly correlated with stress (r =
nificant. The results (Table 4) revealed that the total effect of
0.493, p < 0.001) and anxiety (r = 0.588, p < 0.001). It also
anxiety on delinquency proneness was significant (B = 0.537,
revealed that stress and anxiety positively affect depression
Z = 5.495, p < 0.001). However, with the inclusion of the
among adolescent students.
mediating variable depression, the impact of anxiety on

Table 3: Regression analysis

Predictor Estimate Standardised Beta SE t-value p-value

R = 0.549, R2 = 0.301, adjusted R2 = 0.291, F(3,196) = 28.2, p < 0.001

Constant 64.7971 0.948 68.353 <0.001
Anxiety 0.0349 0.0235 0.129 0.272 0.786
Depression 0.7258 0.4938 0.110 6.587 <0.001
Stress 0.1404 0.0733 0.154 0.910 0.364
 Analysing the General Strain Theory  7

Table 4: Mediation effect of depression between the relationship of anxiety and delinquency proneness

Mediation Estimates

Effect Label Estimate SE Z p % Mediation

Indirect a×b 0.4410 0.0769 5.732 <0.001 82.1

Direct C 0.0961 0.1086 0.885 0.376 17.9
Total c+a×b 0.5371 0.0977 5.495 <0.001 100.0

first step, stress was added to perform regression analysis

Depression as it is also a predictor of delinquent behaviour in previous
B=0.593, p<.001 B=0.743, p<.001 research. In the second step, when depression was added,
the effect of stress on delinquency proneness became insig-
Anxiety Delinquency nificant. The results (Table 6) revealed that the total effect
B=0.096, p=0.376
Proneness of stress on delinquency proneness was significant (B =
0.636, Z = 4.98, p < 0.001). However, with the inclusion of
Figure 6: Mediation effect of depression on the relationship between the mediating variable depression, the impact of stress on
anxiety and delinquency proneness in adolescent student. delinquency proneness became insignificant (B = 0.162, Z =
1.25, p = 0.212) (Table 7). The indirect effect of stress on
delinquency proneness through depression was found to
delinquency proneness became insignificant (B = 0.096, Z = be significant (B = 0.474, Z = 5.43, p < 0.001). This shows that
0.885, p = 0.376) (Table 5). The indirect effect of anxiety on depression fully mediates the relationship between stress and
delinquency proneness through depression was found signif- delinquency proneness. In addition, depression accounts for
icant (B = 0.441, Z = 5.732, p < 0.001). This shows that depres- 74.5% mediation effect between stress and delinquency pro-
sion fully mediates the relationship between anxiety and neness (Figure 7, Table 6).
delinquency proneness. In addition, depression accounts
for 82.1% mediation effect between anxiety and delinquency
proneness (Figure 6, Table 4).
RQ3: Does depression act as a mediator for the asso- 4 Discussion
ciation between stress and delinquency proneness?
Furthermore, mediation analysis was also performed The present study is centred on exploring the interplay
to investigate whether depression acts as a mediator for among anxiety, stress, depression, and delinquency prone-
the association of stress and delinquency proneness. In the ness. The results indicate a significant correlation between

Table 5: Path estimates

Path estimates Label Estimate SE Z P

Anxiety → Depression A 0.5934 0.0577 10.286 < 0.001

Depression → Delinquency proneness B 0.7432 0.1077 6.903 < 0.001
Anxiety → Delinquency proneness C 0.0961 0.1086 0.885 0.376

Table 6: Mediation estimates of depression between the relationship of stress and delinquency proneness

Mediation estimates 95% Confidence interval

Effect Label Estimate SE Lower Upper Z P % Mediation

Indirect a×b 0.474 0.0873 0.3029 0.645 5.43 < 0.001 74.5
Direct C 0.162 0.1302 −0.0928 0.418 1.25 0.212 25.5
Total c+a×b 0.636 0.1278 0.3857 0.887 4.98 <0.001 100.0
8  Poonam Punia et al.

Depression compared to females (de Coster & Zito, 2010; Fung, 2021;
B=0.642, p<.001 B=0.738, p<.001 Licitra-Kleckler & Waas, 2016; Piquero & Sealock, 2006).
Contrary to previous research, the current study found
that female adolescent students reported higher stress
Stress Delinquency
Proneness
levels than males (Choulagai & Professor, 2018; Hosseinian
B=0.162, p=0.212
et al., 2022; Licitra-Kleckler & Waas, 2016; Shamsuddin
et al., 2013). The discrepancies in results across studies
Figure 7: Mediation effect of depression in the relationship between
stress and delinquency proneness.
could potentially be attributed to cultural variations in
gender dynamics. Additionally, prior research also sug-
gested that gender, age group, and education of an indi-
the predictor variables (anxiety, stress, and depression) vidual influence the intensity of stress (Nooripour et al., 2024).
and delinquency proneness, consistent with prior research The hypothesised model was tested and validated
(Chen, 2021; de Coster & Zito, 2010; Fung, 2021). Further- based on the collected data, affirming the role of strains
more, the study findings resonate with earlier literature, (anxiety and stress) in shaping delinquency proneness.
indicating that negative emotions play a crucial role in The study also confirmed that negative emotions, such
predicting delinquent behaviour among youth (Flouri & as depression, mediate stress, and anxiety’s impact on
Panourgia, 2011b; Kort-Butler, 2009). The research provides delinquency proneness. Numerous previous studies rein-
support for the GST within the Indian context, demon- force the current study’s results, indicating a strong asso-
strating that adolescent students experiencing various strains ciation between anxiety, depression, stress issues, and
(anxiety, stress, and depression) are more susceptible to delin- delinquent behaviour (Atadokht & Gharagozloo, 2018;
quent or antisocial behaviour. Five key findings emerged Bao, Haas, & Pi, 2004; Hoffmann & Cerbone, 1999; Kort-
from the study: (1) stress levels vary between male and Butler, 2009). Additionally, the study adds to the existing
female adolescent students; (2) delinquency proneness is posi- body of research by showcasing the mediation role of
tively associated with anxiety, stress, and depression; (3) depression in the relationship between strains like anxiety
depression correlates positively with stress and anxiety; (4) and stress and delinquency proneness among adolescents in
delinquency proneness can be elucidated by anxiety, stress, the Indian context.
and depression; and (5) the influence of anxiety and stress on In alignment with the GST, the study findings suggest
delinquency proneness is mediated by depression. that heightened strain levels (elevated anxiety and stress) cor-
The present study revealed no significant gender dis- respond to increased delinquency proneness. Conversely, the
parities in reporting anxiety, depression, and delinquency literature presents conflicting perspectives, with some studies
proneness, except for stress among adolescents. Findings proposing that more anxious-depressed symptoms are asso-
from Bhasin, Sharma, and Saini (2009) regarding anxiety ciated with reduced delinquent behaviour among adolescents
are consistent with the current study, although they con- (Habersaat et al., 2020). The study introduces a comprehensive
tradict some previous research studies that compared mediation model, illustrating how anxiety and stress can lead
anxiety levels between male and female adolescent stu- to depression, thus intensifying delinquency proneness among
dents (de Coster & Zito, 2010; Jayashree, Mithra, Nair, adolescents. While several research studies support this
Unnikrishnan, & Pai, 2018; Mishra, Srivastava, Tiwary, & mediating effect of depression, others indicate that anxiety
Kumar, 2018). Similar incongruences were observed in the and depression independently impact delinquent behaviour
past few studies on gender differences in delinquent beha- without mediation or moderation effects (Habersaat et al.,
viour. Existing literature suggested that males exhibit a 2020). Bao et al. (2004) have highlighted the mediating role of
higher propensity for engaging in delinquent behaviour anger, anxiety, and depression in the relationship between

Table 7: Path estimates

95% Confidence interval

Path estimates Label Estimate SE Lower Upper Z P

Stress → Depression A 0.642 0.0802 0.4850 0.800 8.01 < 0.001

Depression → Deliquency proneness B 0.738 0.0999 0.5422 0.934 7.39 <0.001
Stress → Deliquency proneness C 0.162 0.1302 −0.0928 0.418 1.25 0.212
 Analysing the General Strain Theory  9

interpersonal strain and minor offence. Glassner (2020) a non-Western culture, building upon existing research in
emphasised the mediating role of depressive symptoms in American and Chinese school samples and reinforcing the
the relationship between bullying and delinquency in the theory’s validity and broad applicability.
case of females. Present study results highlight the role of The present study is limited to self-report measures,
depression in mediating the relationship between various which may produce biased results. Although the present
strains and deviant behaviour among adolescents, as study supports earlier findings, delinquent behaviour among
observed in behaviours such as drug use, homicide, or adolescents is still not understood, and the involvement of
self-derogation. Ultimately, the study contributes to the family dynamics must be considered for future research.
body of knowledge by elucidating how anxiety, stress, Recommendations for future research also include
and negative emotions interplay with delinquency prone- utilising larger datasets and incorporating additional vari-
ness among adolescents. ables (i.e. aggression, impulsiveness) for a more comprehen-
This study addresses the complex interplay of stress, sive understanding of the impact of strain and psychosocial
anxiety, depression, and delinquency among adolescent factors on delinquent behaviour through diverse research
students, with particular emphasis on the Indian cultural methodologies such as observations and interviews. The
context. Based on the GST, which is of great importance to study underscores the need for effective intervention pro-
the socio-cultural fabric of India, the research attempts to grams in schools, homes, and communities, as a significant
shed light on how stresses faced by young people contribute number of adolescents exhibit high levels of stress, anxiety,
to criminal behaviour. In the Indian context, where societal depression, and delinquency proneness. Intervention pro-
expectations, academic pressures, and family responsibil- grams should focus on equipping young people with inter-
ities often weigh heavily on adolescents, it is crucial to personal skills and coping strategies to manage negative
understand the impact of stress, anxiety, and depression. emotions effectively. It is suggested that mindfulness training
GST serves as a theoretical framework and suggests that programme should be implemented for adolescents to reduce
when adolescents face stress, whether from academic chal- negative emotions as such intervention strategies and pro-
lenges, peer pressure, or family conflict, they may resort to grammes are lacking. With the help of these programmes,
criminal behaviour as a coping mechanism. An important adolescents can be trained to manage their emotions to reduce
aspect of this study is to examine how anxiety and stress psychological distress.
intersect with crime susceptibility, which may be mediated
by depression. In Indian culture, mental health issues such
as anxiety and depression are often stigmatised, leading
youth to internalise these emotions instead of seeking sup- 5 Conclusion
port. As a result, these negative emotions can manifest them-
selves in behaviours that are considered criminal, such as GST provides the foundational basis for this research by
substance abuse or aggression, as adolescents struggle to positing that strain experienced by adolescents can lead to
cope with their inner turmoil. By examining these dynamics delinquent behaviour. The principal theoretical contribu-
in the Indian context, the study aims to shed light on tion of this study is to examine the relationship between
the nuanced pathways through which stress influences stress, anxiety, depression, and delinquency proneness
adolescent behaviour. This contributes to the theoretical among adolescent students within the framework of GST
understanding of GST and has practical implications for in Indian context. It is theorised that anxiety and stress are
interventions and support systems tailored to India’s unique correlated with delinquency proneness and are potentially
socio-cultural landscape. By addressing the root causes of mediated by depression, which arises as negative emotions
juvenile delinquency in the Indian context, this research in response to various forms of strains such as stress and
ultimately aims to promote the well-being and resilience anxiety.
of young people grappling with the complexities of adoles- Educators will find the insights from this study valu-
cence. The research utilised hierarchical regression analysis able, as it emphasises the importance of teaching adoles-
to verify the proposed model, and results indicated that cents to cope with anxiety, stress, and depression to mitigate
anxiety and stress contribute to delinquency proneness their adverse impacts and prevent juvenile delinquency.
among adolescent students through the mediation of Furthermore, the study highlights the necessity of addres-
depression. These findings address the specific mechan- sing psychological distress and its implications. Providing
isms by which negative emotions connect strain to crim- support to youths facing psychological challenges can help
inal outcomes. Importantly, our results align with the prevent delinquency among the stressed youth population
core tenets of the GST mediating model in the context of in India. Early detection and intervention to alleviate
10  Poonam Punia et al.

symptoms of adolescent anxiety, stress, and depression are Brezina, T. (2016). Teenage violence toward parents as an adaptation
crucial for safeguarding their future well-being. to family strain: Evidence from a national survey of male
adolescents. Youth & Society, 30(4), 416–444. doi: 10.1177/
0044118X99030004002.
Funding information: No financial support was obtained
Chen, X. (2021). Strain, school type, and delinquent behaviour among
for conducting this research. migrant adolescents in China. Asian Journal of Criminology, 16(4),
357–376. doi: 10.1007/s11417-021-09342-7.
Author contributions: Dr. Poonam Punia: Planned, ana- Chopra, R., & Kaur, S. (2013). Manual for Delinquency Proneness Scale.
lysed and finalized the study. Swati Jangra: Collected Jagson Scientific Industries.
Choulagai, B. P., & Professor, A. (2018). Stress, anxiety, and depression
data and write the manuscript. Manju Phor: Wrote the
among adolescent students of public schools in Kathmandu. In
manuscript and analysed the data. [Link]. [Link]
direct=true&profile=ehost&scope=site&authtype=crawler&jrnl=
Conflict of interest: Authors state no conflict of interest. 19932979&AN=137139357&h=RBf0FQdkulwW8GLlW2ZrIXIpLT-
6DnyNxJMV898TCt9u8f2rbDCWV94WBIkiuT4XrawIOo%
2FkJ0kTB08ZuZhQ2Fg%3D%3D&crl=c.
Connor-Smith, J. K., Compas, B. E., Wadsworth, M. E., Thomsen, A. H., &
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